Temperature influences every aspect of ant biology, especially metabolic rate, growth and development. Maintenance of high inner nest temperature increases the rate of sexual brood development and thereby increases the colony fitness. Insect societies can achieve better thermoregulation than solitary insects due to the former's ability to build large and elaborated nests and display complex behaviour. In ants and termites the upper part of the nest, the mound, often works as a solar collector and can also have an efficient ventilation system. Two thermoregulatory strategies could be applied. Firstly the ants use an increased thermal gradient available in the mound for brood relocation. Nurse workers move the brood according to the thermal gradients to ensure the ideal conditions for development. A precise perception of temperature and evolution of temperature preferences are needed to make the correct choices. A second thermoregulatory strategy used by mound nesting ants is keeping a high temperature inside large nests. The unique thermal and insulation properties of the nest material help to maintain stable conditions, which is the case of the Wood ant genus Formica. Ants can regulate thermal loss by moving nest aggregation and alternating nest ventilation. Metabolic heat produced by ant workers or associated micro organisms is an important additional source of heat which helps to maintain thermal homeostasis in the nest.

Department of Ecology Charles University Prague CZ12800 Czech Republic

Institute for Environmental Studies Charles University Prague CZ12800 Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Porter SD, Tschinkel WR: Fire ant thermal preferences: behavioral control of growth and metabolism. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 1993;32(5):321–329 10.1007/BF00183787 DOI

Challet M, Jost C, Grimall A, et al. : How temperature influences displacements and corpse aggregation behaviors in the ant Messor sancta. Insect Soc. 2005;52(4):309–315 10.1007/s00040-005-0821-1 DOI

Coenen-Stass D, Schaarschmidt B, Lamprecht I: Temperature distribution and calorimetric determination of heat production in the nest of the wood ants Formica polyctena (Hymenoptera Formicidae). Ecology. 1980;61:238–244 10.2307/1935180 DOI

Brian MV: Temperature choice and its relevance to brood survival and caste determination in the ant Myrmica rubra L. Physiol Zool. 1973;46(4):245–252 Reference Source

Wilson EO: The insect societies. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Massachusetts.1971;548 Reference Source

Jones JC, Oldroyd BP: Nest Thermoregulation in Social Insects. Adv in Insect Phys. 2006;33:153–191 10.1016/S0065-2806(06)33003-2 DOI

Porter SD: Impact of temperature on colony growth and developmental rates of the ant Solenopsis invicta. J Insect Phys. 1988;34(12):1127–1133 10.1016/0022-1910(88)90215-6 DOI

Carlson SR, Whitford WD: Ant mound influence on vegetation and soils in semiarid mountain ecosystem. American Midland Naturalist. 1991;126(1):125–139 Reference Source

Penick CA, Tschinkel WR: Thermoregulatory brood transport in the fire ant Solenopsis invicta. Insect Soc. 2008;55(2):176–182 10.1007/s00040-008-0987-4 DOI

Hölldobler B: Territorial Behaviour in the Green Tree Ant ( Oecophylla smaragdina). Biotropica. 1983;15(4):241–250 10.2307/2387648 DOI

Brandt CJ: The thermal diffusivity of the organic material of a mound of Formica polyctena Foerst in relation to the thermoregulation of the brood (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Neth J Zool. 1980;30(2):326–344 10.1163/002829679X00449 DOI

Kilpeläinen J, Punttila P, Finér L, et al. : Distribution of ant species and mounds (Formica) in different-aged managed spruce stands in eastern Finland. J Appl Entomol. 2008;132(4):315–325 10.1111/j.1439-0418.2007.01244.x DOI

Frouz J, Kalčík J, Cudlín P: Accumulation of phosphorus in nests of red wood ants Formica s. str. Ann Zool Fennici. 2005;42(3):269–275 Reference Source

Coenen-Stass D: Zum Verhalten der roten Waldameise, Formica polyctena. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) im Klimagradient während der Brutpflege. Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft. 1985;78:204–112 Reference Source

Frouz J: The effect of nest moisture on daily temperature regime in the nests of Formica polyctena wood ants. Insect Soc. 2000;47(3):229–235 10.1007/PL00001708 DOI

Horstmann K, Schmid H: Temperature regulation in nests of the wood ant, Formica polyctena (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Entomologia Generalis. 1986;11(3–4):229–236 10.1127/entom.gen/11/1986/229 DOI

Castella G, Chapuisat M, Christe P: Prophylaxis with resin in wood ants. Anim Behav. 2008;75(4):1591–1596 10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.10.014 DOI

Mciver JD, Torgersen TR, Cimon NJ: A supercolony of the thatch ant Formica obscuripes Forel (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) from the Blue Mountains of Oregon. Northwest Sci. 1997;71(1):18–29 Reference Source

Bollazzi M, Roces F: The thermoregulatory function of thatched nests in the South American grass-cutting ant, Acromyrmex heyeri. J Insect Sci. 2010;10(137):1–17. 10.1673/031.010.13701 PubMed DOI PMC

Seeley TD, Heinrich B: Regulation of temperature in the nest of social insects. In: Insect Thermoregulation (HEINRICH, B. Ed.). John Wiley and Sons, Inc,.1981;pp. 160–234.

Kneitz G: Versuche zur Wärmeorientierung von Arbeiterinnen der Waldameisenart Formica polyctena Foerst. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Insect Soc. 1966;13:285–296 10.1007/BF02222388 DOI

Vogt JT: Quantifying imported Fire ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) mounds with airborne digital imagery. Environ Entomol. 2004;33(4):1045–1051 10.1603/0046-225X-33.4.1045 DOI

Hölldobler B, Wilson EO: The Ants. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge,1990;732 pp Reference Source

Vogt JT, Wallet B, Freeland TB, Jr: Imported fire ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) mound shape characteristics along a north-south gradient. Environ Entomol. 2008;37(1):198–205. 10.1603/0046-225X(2008)37[198:IFAHFM]2.0.CO;2 PubMed DOI

Korb J, Linsenmair KE: The effects of temperature on the architecture and distribution of Macrotermes bellicosus (Isoptera, Macrotermitinae) mounds in different habitats of a West African Guinea savanna. Insec Soc. 1998;45(1):51–65 10.1007/s000400050068 DOI

Grigg GC: Some consequences of the shape and orientation of 'magnetic' termite mounds. Aust J Zool. 1973;21(2):231–237 10.1071/ZO9730231 DOI

Kleineidam C, Ernst R, Roces F: Wind induced ventilation of the giant nests of the leaf-cutting ant Atta vollenweideri. Naturwissenschaften. 2001;88(7):301–305. 10.1007/s001140100235 PubMed DOI

Powell RJ, Stradling DJ: Factors influencing the growth of the Attamyces bromatificus, a symbiont of Attine ants. Trans Br Mycol Soc. 1986;87(2):205–213 10.1016/S0007-1536(86)80022-5 DOI

Roces F, Núñez JA: Brood translocation and circadian variation of temperature preference in the ant Campotonus mus. Oecologia. 1989;81(1):33–37 10.1007/BF00377006 PubMed DOI

Bollazzi M, Roces F: To build or not to build: circulating dry air organizes collective building for climate control in the leaf-cutting ant Acromyrmex ambiguus. Anim Behav. 2007;74(5):1349–1355 10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.02.021 DOI

Jones JC, Myerscough MR, Graham S, et al. : Honey bee nest thermoregulation: diversity promotes stability. Science. 2004;305(5682):402–404. 10.1126/science.1096340 PubMed DOI

Banschbach VS, Levit N, Herbers JM: Nest temperatures and thermal preferences of a forest ant species: is seasonal polydomy a thermoregulatory mechanism? Insect Soc. 1997;44(2):109–122 10.1007/s000400050034 DOI

Cokendolhper JC, Francke OF: Temperature preferences of four species of the fire ants ( Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Solenopsis). Psyche. 1985;92(1):91–101 10.1155/1985/32878 DOI

Coenen-Stass D: Untersuchungen fiber die jahreszeitlichen Klimaprfiferenz der roten Waldameise Formica polyctena (Hymeno-ptera, Formicidae).Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Allgemeine und Angewandte Entomologie.1987; 5:44–48.

Kipyatkov VE, Schederova SS: Seasonal changes in behavior patterns of the ant Formica polyctena in an artificial nest with temperature gradient. Zool Zhurnal. 1985;65(12):1847–1857 Reference Source

Ceusters R: Social homeostasis in colonies of Formica polyctena Foerst. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae): nest form and temperature preferences. Proc. 8th Int. Cong, International Union for the Study of Social Insects. Wageningen,1977;pp. 111–112 Reference Source

Calabi P, Porter SD: Worker longevity in the fire ant Solenopsis invicta: Ergonomic considerations of correlations between temperature, size and metabolic rates. J Insect Physiol. 1989;35(8):643–649 10.1016/0022-1910(89)90127-3 DOI

Bollazzi M, Roces F: Thermal preference for fungus culturing and brood location by workers of the thatching grass-cutting ant Acromyrmex heyeri. Insect Soc. 2002;49(2):153–157 10.1007/s00040-002-8295-x DOI

Weir J: Air flow, evaporation and mineral accumulation in mounds of Macrotermes subhyalinus. (rambur). J Anim Ecol. 1973;42(3):509–520 10.2307/3120 DOI

Bollazzi M, Roces F: Leaf-cutting ant workers ( Acromyrmex heyeri) trade off nest thermoregulation for humidity control. J Ethol. 2010;28(2):399–403 Japan Ethological Society and Springer. 10.1007/s10164-010-0207-3 DOI

Schneirla TC: Army Ants: a Study in Social Organization (TOPOFF, H. Ed.). Freeman, San Francisco.1971. Reference Source

Korb J, Linsenmair KE: Thermoregulation of termite mounds: What role does ambient temperature and metabolism of the colony play? Insect Soc. 2000;47(4):357–363 10.1007/PL00001731 DOI

Lindauer M: Temperaturregulierung und Wasserhaushalt im Bienenstaat. Z Vergl Physiol. 1954;36(4):391–432 10.1007/BF00345028 DOI

Kleinhenz M, Bujok B, Fuchs S, et al. : Hot bees in empty broodnest cells: heating from within. J Exp Biol. 2003;206(Pt 23):4217–4231. 10.1242/jeb.00680 PubMed DOI

Ono M, Igarashi T, Ohno E, et al. : Unusual thermal defense by a honeybee against mass attack by hornets. Nature. 1995;337(6547):334–336 10.1038/377334a0 DOI

Rosengren R, Fortelius W, Lindström K, et al. : Phenology and causation of nest heating and thermoregulation in red wood ants of the Formica rufa group studied in coniferous forest habitats in southern Finland. Ann Zool Fennici. 1987;24:147–155 Reference Source

Hölldobler B, Wilson EO: The Ants. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge,1990;732 pp 10.1126/science.248.4957.897 DOI

Franks NR: Thermoregulation in army ant bivouacs. Physiol Entomol. 1989;14(4):397–404 10.1111/j.1365-3032.1989.tb01109.x DOI

Frouz J, Finer L: Diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in wood ant (Formica polyctena) nest temperature in two geographically distant populations along a south-north gradient. Insect Soc. 2007;54(3):251–259 10.1007/s00040-007-0939-4 DOI

Martin SJ: Thermoregulation in Vespa simillima xanthoptera. (Hymenoptera, Vespidae). Kontyu. 1988;56(3):674–677 Reference Source

Zahn M: Temperatursinn, Wärmehaushat und Bauweise der role Waldameisen ( Formica rufa L). Zoologische Beitraege. 1958;3:127–194.

Kipyatkov VE, Schederova SS: The endogenous rhythm of queens' reproductive activity in red wood ants ( Formica group). Zool Zhurnal. 1990;69(5):40–52 Reference Source

Raignier A: L’économie thermique d’une colonie polycalique de la fourmi des bois ( Formica rufa polyctena Foerst). La Cellule. 1948;51:289–368 Reference Source PubMed

Tschinkel WR: Seasonal life history and nest architecture of a winter-active ant, Prenolepis imparis. Insect Soc. 1987;34(3):143–164 10.1007/BF02224081 DOI

Chen YH, Robinson EJH: A comparison of mark-release-recapture methods for estimating colony size in the wood ants Formica lugubris. Insect Soc. 2013;60(3):351–359 10.1007/s00040-013-0300-z DOI

Chen Y, Hansen LD, Brown JJ: Nesting sites of the carpenter ant, Camponotus vicinus (Mayr) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in northern Idaho. Environ Entomol. 2002;31(6):1037–1042 10.1603/0046-225X-31.6.1037 DOI

Ofer J: Polyrhachis simplex, the weaver ant of Israel. Insect Soc. 1970;17(1):49–81 10.1007/BF02223772 DOI

Miyata H, Shimamura T, Hirosawa H, et al. : Morphology and phenology of the primitive ponerine army ant Onychomyrmex hedleyi (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae) in a highland rainforest of Australia. J Nat Hist. 2003;37(1):115–125 10.1080/713834393 DOI

Sanada-Morimura S, Satoh T, Obara Y: Territorial behavior and temperature preference for nesting sites in a pavement ant Tetramorium tsushimae. Insect Soc. 2006;53(2):141–148 10.1007/s00040-005-0849-2 DOI

Cole BJ: Nest architecture in the Western harvester ant, Pogonomyrmex occidentalis (Cresson). Insect Soc. 1994;41(4):401–410 10.1007/BF01240643 DOI

Fletcher DJC, Crewe RM: Nest structure and thermoregulation in the stingless bee Trigona ( Plebeina) denoiti Vachal (Hymenoptera: Apidae). J Entomol Soc South Afr. 1981;44(2):183–196 Reference Source

Lüscher M: Air-conditioned termite nests. Sci Am. 1961;205:138–145 10.1038/scientificamerican0761-138 DOI

Ishay J: Thermoregulation by social wasps: behavior and pheromones. Trans N Y Acad Sci. 1973;35(6):447–462. 10.1111/j.2164-0947.1973.tb01518.x PubMed DOI

Ishay JS, Barenholz-Paniry V: Thermoelectric effect in hornet ( Vespa orientalis) silk and thermoregulation in a hornet’s nest. J Insect Physiol. 1995;41(9):753–759 10.1016/0022-1910(95)00034-R DOI

Greaves T: Temperature studies of termite colonies in living trees. Aust J Zool. 1964;12(2):250–262 10.1071/ZO9640250 DOI

Morse RA, Laigo FM: Apis dorsata in the Philippines. Monogr. Philipp Assoc Entomol. 1969;1:1–96 Reference Source

Nielsen MG: An attempt to estimate energy flow through a population of workers of Lasius Alienus. (forst), (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Natura Jutlandica. 1972;16:99–107 Reference Source

O´Donnell S, Foster RL: Thresholds of response in nest thermoregulation by worker bumble bees, Bombus bifarius nearcticus (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Ethology. 2001;107(5):387–399 10.1046/j.1439-0310.2001.00668.x DOI

Cassill DL, Tschinkel WR, Vinson SB: Nest complexity, group size and brood rearing in the fire ant, Solenopsis invicta. Insect Soc. 2002;49(2):158–163 10.1007/s00040-002-8296-9 DOI

Punttila P: Succession, forest fragmentation, and the distribution of wood ants. Oikos.1996;75:291-298Reference source

Sorvari J, Hakkarainen H: Deforestation reduces nest mound size and decreases the production of sexual offspring in the wood ant Formica aquilonia. Ann Zool Fennici.2005;48:259-267Reference source

Kilpeläinen J, Punttila P, Finér L, Niemelä P, Domisch T, Jurgensen MF, Neuvonen S, Ohashi M, Risch AC, Sundström L: Distribution of ant species and mounds (Formica) in different-aged managed spruce stands in eastern Finland. J Appl Entomol.2008;132: 280315-32510.1111/j.1439-0418.2007.01244.x DOI

Microclimatic conditions of Lasius flavus ant mounds

Sun Basking in Red Wood Ants Formica polyctena (Hymenoptera, Formicidae): Individual Behaviour and Temperature-Dependent Respiration Rates