The ingestion of wheat gliadin (alcohol-soluble proteins, an integral part of wheat gluten) and related proteins induce, in genetically predisposed individuals, celiac disease (CD), which is characterized by immune-mediated impairment of the small intestinal mucosa. The lifelong omission of gluten and related grain proteins, i.e., a gluten-free diet (GFD), is at present the only therapy for CD. Although a GFD usually reduces CD symptoms, it does not entirely restore the small intestinal mucosa to a fully healthy state. Recently, the participation of microbial components in pathogenetic mechanisms of celiac disease was suggested. The present review provides information on infectious diseases associated with CD and the putative role of infections in CD development. Moreover, the involvement of the microbiota as a factor contributing to pathological changes in the intestine is discussed. Attention is paid to the mechanisms by which microbes and their components affect mucosal immunity, including tolerance to food antigens. Modulation of microbiota composition and function and the potential beneficial effects of probiotics in celiac disease are discussed.

1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University Kateřinská 1660 32 121 08 Prague Czech Republic

Department of Internal Medicine University Hospital Královské Vinohrady and 3rd Faculty of Medicine Charles University Ruská 87 100 00 Prague Czech Republic

Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences v v i Vídeňská 1083 142 20 Prague Czech Republic

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