During the last decade, the popularity of hemp products has been rising rapidly. Products containing cannabidiol (CBD) are of predominant interest. Traditional hemp products are frequently enriched by CBD due to their potential therapeutic effects. Cannabidiol occurs naturally in hemp juice together with other biologically active substances, such as terpenes, flavonoids, and stilbenoids. These constituents act synergistically. This study aimed to observe the influence of the hemp plant developmental stage on its chemical composition and antioxidant activity. The hemp plants were analyzed during three vegetative stages, i.e., before, during, and after flowering. The collected samples were evaluated using the following analyses: total polyphenolic content and profile, terpenoid and cannabinoid contents, and ferric reducing antioxidant power. The results revealed statistically significant differences between the samples in almost all set parameters. The optimal period for hemp harvest depends on desirable compounds, i.e., phenolic content is the highest before flowering, while the levels of cannabinoids and terpenoids are the highest during the flowering period.

Centre of Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute Palacky University Šlechtitelů 27 78371 Olomouc Czech Republic

Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research Department of Genetic Resources for Vegetables Medicinal and Special Plants Crop Research Institute Šlechtitelů 29 78371 Olomouc Czech Republic

Department of Plant Origin Food Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology University of Veterinary Sciences Brno Palackého tř 1946 1 61242 Brno Czech Republic

See more in PubMed

Hanus L.O. Pharmacological and Therapeutic Secrets of Plant and Brain (Endo) Cannabinoids. Med. Res. Rev. 2009;29:213–271. doi: 10.1002/med.20135. PubMed DOI

Ross S.A., Mehmedic Z., Murphy T.P., Elsohly M.A. GC-MS analysis of the total delta9-THC content of both drug- and fiber-type cannabis seeds. J. Anal. Toxicol. 2000;24:715–717. doi: 10.1093/jat/24.8.715. PubMed DOI

Cascini F., Farcomeni A., Migliorini D., Baldassarri L., Boschi I., Martello S., Amaducci S., Lucini L., Bernardi J. Highly Predictive Genetic Markers Distinguish Drug-Type from Fiber-Type Cannabis sativa L. Plants. 2019;8:496. doi: 10.3390/plants8110496. PubMed DOI PMC

EU Plant Variety Database (v. 3.4)—European Commission. [(accessed on 15 April 2021)]; Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/plant_propagation_material/plant_variety_catalogues_databases/search/public/index.cfm.

Rock E.M., Parker L.A. Constituents of Cannabis Sativa. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2021;1264:1–13. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-57369-0_1. PubMed DOI

Flores-Sanchez I.J., Verpoorte R. Secondary metabolism in cannabis. Phytochem. Rev. 2008;7:615–639. doi: 10.1007/s11101-008-9094-4. DOI

Kaczorova D., Beres T., Zeljkovic S.C., Bjelkova M., Kuchar M., Tarkowski P.A. About Cannabis without Prejudice. Chem. List. 2020;114:277–284.

Hanus L.O., Martin Meyer S., Munoz E., Taglialatela-Scafati O., Appendino G. Phytocannabinoids: A unified critical inventory. Nat. Prod. Rep. 2016;33:1357–1392. doi: 10.1039/C6NP00074F. PubMed DOI

House J.D., Neufeld J., Leson G. Evaluating the Quality of Protein from Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa L.) Products Through the use of the Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score Method. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010;58:11801–11807. doi: 10.1021/jf102636b. PubMed DOI

Ruman M., Klvaňová L. Konopí: Staronový Přítel Člověka. Konopa; Chvaleč, Czech Republic: 2008.

Namdar D., Anis O., Poulin P., Koltai H. Chronological Review and Rational and Future Prospects of Cannabis-Based Drug Development. Molecules. 2020;25:4821. doi: 10.3390/molecules25204821. PubMed DOI PMC

Sexton M., Shelton K., Haley P., West M. Evaluation of Cannabinoid and Terpenoid Content: Cannabis Flower Compared to Supercritical CO2 Concentrate (vol 84, pg 234, 2017) Planta Med. 2018;84:E3. doi: 10.1055/s-0043-122272. PubMed DOI

Tomadoni B., Cassani L., Ponce A., Moreira M.R., Aguero M.V. Optimization of ultrasound, vanillin and pomegranate extract treatment for shelf-stable unpasteurized strawberry juice. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2016;72:475–484. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2016.05.024. DOI

Gomez-Estaca J., Bravo L., Gomez-Guillen M.C., Aleman A., Montero P. Antioxidant properties of tuna-skin and bovine-hide gelatin films induced by the addition of oregano and rosemary extracts. Food Chem. 2009;112:18–25. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.05.034. DOI

Behbahani B.A., Shahidi F., Yazdi F.T., Mortazavi S.A., Mohebbi M. Use of Plantago major seed mucilage as a novel edible coating incorporated with Anethum graveolens essential oil on shelf life extension of beef in refrigerated storage. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2017;94:515–526. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.10.055. PubMed DOI

Béres T., Černochová L., Ćavar Zeljković S., Benická S., Gucký T., Berčák M., Tarkowski P. Intralaboratory comparison of analytical methods for quantification of major phytocannabinoids. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2019;411:3069–3079. doi: 10.1007/s00216-019-01760-y. PubMed DOI

Bailoni L., Bacchin E., Trocino A., Arango S. Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Seed and Co-Products Inclusion in Diets for Dairy Ruminants: A Review. Animals. 2021;11:856. doi: 10.3390/ani11030856. PubMed DOI PMC

Pojic M., Dapcevic Hadnadev T., Hadnadev M., Rakita S., Brlek T. Bread supplementation with hemp seed cake: A by-product of hemp oil processing. J. Food Qual. 2015;38:431–440. doi: 10.1111/jfq.12159. DOI

Hruskova M., Svec I. Cookie Making Potential of Composite Flour Containing Wheat, Barley and Hemp. Czech J. Food Sci. 2015;33:545–555. doi: 10.17221/9/2015-CJFS. DOI

Shen P., Gao Z., Fang B., Rao J., Chen B. Ferreting out the secrets of industrial hemp protein as emerging functional food ingredients. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021;112:1–15. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.03.022. DOI

Milay L., Berman P., Shapira A., Guberman O., Meiri D. Metabolic Profiling of Cannabis Secondary Metabolites for Evaluation of Optimal Postharvest Storage Conditions. Front. Plant Sci. 2020;11:3605. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.583605. PubMed DOI PMC

Andre A., Leupin M., Kneubuhl M., Pedan V., Chetschik I. Evolution of the Polyphenol and Terpene Content, Antioxidant Activity and Plant Morphology of Eight Different Fiber-Type Cultivars of Cannabis sativa L. Cultivated at Three Sowing Densities. Plants. 2020;9:1740. doi: 10.3390/plants9121740. PubMed DOI PMC

Jin D., Dai K., Xie Z., Chen J. Secondary Metabolites Profiled in Cannabis Inflorescences, Leaves, Stem Barks, and Roots for Medicinal Purposes. Sci. Rep. 2020;10:1–4. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-60172-6. PubMed DOI PMC

Djeridane A., Yousfi M., Nadjemi B., Boutassouna D., Stocker P., Vidal N. Antioxidant activity of some algerian medicinal plants extracts containing phenolic compounds. Food Chem. 2006;97:654–660. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.04.028. DOI

Zheng W., Wang S.Y. Antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds in selected herbs. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001;49:5165–5170. doi: 10.1021/jf010697n. PubMed DOI

Slovenský Hydrometeorologický Ústav Agrometeorologické a Fenologické Informácie. [(accessed on 25 May 2021)];2018 Available online: http://www.shmu.sk/en/?page=1786&id=&identif=11816&rok=2018&obdobie=1981-2010.

Slovenský Hydrometeorologický Ústav Agrometeorologické a Fenologické Informácie. [(accessed on 25 May 2021)];2019 Available online: http://www.shmu.sk/en/?page=1786&id=&identif=11816&rok=2019&obdobie=1981-2010.

Ahmed M., Adil M., Haq I.U., Tipu M.K., Qasim M., Gul B. RP-HPLC-based phytochemical analysis and diverse pharmacological evaluation of Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus nuts extracts. Nat. Prod. Res. 2019 doi: 10.1080/14786419.2019.1667347. PubMed DOI

Stack G.M., Toth J.A., Carlson C.H., Cala A.R., Marrero-Gonzalez I.M., Wilk R.L., Gentner D.R., Crawford J.L., Philippe G., Rose J.K.C., et al. Season-long characterization of high-cannabinoid hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) reveals variation in cannabinoid accumulation, flowering time, and disease resistance. Glob. Chang. Biol. Bioenergy. 2021;13:546–561. doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12793. DOI

Paulickova I., Ehrenbergerova J., Fiedlerova V., Gabrovska D., Havlova P., Holasova M., Kopacek J., Ouhrabkova J., Pinkrova J., Rysova J., et al. Evaluation of barley grass as a potential source of some nutritional substances. Czech J. Food Sci. 2007;25:65–72. doi: 10.17221/754-CJFS. DOI

Abdollahi M., Sefidkon F., Calagari M., Mousavi A., Mahomoodally M.F. Impact of four hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) varieties and stage of plant growth on yield and composition of essential oils. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2020;155:112793. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112793. DOI

Li H., Liu Y., Tian D., Tian L., Ju X., Qi L., Wang Y., Liang C. Overview of cannabidiol (CBD) and its analogues: Structures, biological activities, and neuroprotective mechanisms in epilepsy and Alzheimer’s disease. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 2020;192:112163. doi: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112163. PubMed DOI

Cosentino R.O., Agueero F. A Simple Strain Typing Assay for Trypanosoma cruzi: Discrimination of Major Evolutionary Lineages from a Single Amplification Product. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2012;6:e1777. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001777. PubMed DOI PMC

Dupal L. Kniha o Marihuaně. 3rd ed. Matamata; Praha, Czech Republic: 2010.

Yang R., Berthold E.C., McCurdy C.R., da Silva Benevenute S., Brym Z.T., Freeman J.H. Development of Cannabinoids in Flowers of Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): A Pilot Study. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2020;68:6058–6064. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c01211. PubMed DOI

Rustichelli C., Ferioli V., Baraldi M., Zanoli P., Gamberini G. Analysis of cannabinoids in fiber hemp plant varieties (Cannabis sativa L.) by high-performance liquid chromatography. Chromatographia. 1998;48:215–222. doi: 10.1007/BF02467674. DOI

Glivar T., Erzen J., Kreft S., Zagozen M., Cerenak A., Ceh B., Benkovic E.T. Cannabinoid content in industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) varieties grown in Slovenia. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2020;145:112082. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.112082. DOI

Kleinhenz M.D., Magnin G., Ensley S.M., Griffin J.J., Goeser J., Lynch E., Coetzee J.F. Nutrient concentrations, digestibility, and cannabinoid concentrations of industrial hemp plant components. Appl. Anim. Sci. 2020;36:489–494. doi: 10.15232/aas.2020-02018. DOI

Brighenti V., Pellati F., Steinbach M., Maran D., Benvenuti S. Development of a new extraction technique and HPLC method for the analysis of non-psychoactive cannabinoids in fibre-type Cannabis sativa L. (hemp) J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2017;143:228–236. doi: 10.1016/j.jpba.2017.05.049. PubMed DOI

Nagytė I., Kubilienė A., Marksa M. Фармацевтична наука та практика прoблеми, дoсягнення, перспективи рoзвитку = Pharmaceutical Science and Practice: Problems, Achievements, Prospects: Матеріали IІ наукoвo-практичнoї інтернет-кoнференції з міжнарoднoю участю: 27 квітня 2018 рoку м. Харків/ред. кoл.: ОФ Пімінoв. Міністерствo oхoрoни здoрoв’я України. Націoнальний фармацевтичний університет. Інститут підвищення кваліфікації спеціалістів фармації, Кафедра загальнoї фармації та безпеки ліків, НФаУ; Харків, Ukraine: 2018. Determination of antioxidant activity of Cannabis sativa L. by FRAP spectrophotometry.

Suli J., Homzová K., Sobeková A., Bujdošová Z., Hruskova T. Fyziologické účinky polyfenolov a ich metabolitov v strave. Diabetol. Metab. Endokrinol. Vyziv. 2014;17:162–170.

Slovenský Hydrometeorologický Ústav Agrometeorologické a Fenologické Informácie. [(accessed on 25 May 2021)];2018 Available online: http://www.shmu.sk/en/?page=1784&id=&identif=11816&rok=2018&obdobie=1981-2010.

Slovenský Hydrometeorologický Ústav Agrometeorologické a Fenologické Informácie. [(accessed on 25 May 2021)];2019 Available online: http://www.shmu.sk/en/?page=1784&id=&identif=11816&rok=2019&obdobie=1981-2010.

Sikora V., Berenji J., Latkovic D. Influence of agroclimatic conditions on content of main cannabinoids in industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Genetika. 2011;43:449–456. doi: 10.2298/GENSR1103449S. DOI

Pandey K.B., Rizvi S.I. Plant polyphenols as dietary antioxidants in human health and disease. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2009;2:270–278. doi: 10.4161/oxim.2.5.9498. PubMed DOI PMC

Izzo L., Pacifico S., Piccolella S., Castaldo L., Narvaez A., Grosso M., Ritieni A. Chemical Analysis of Minor Bioactive Components and Cannabidiolic Acidin Commercial Hemp Seed Oil. Molecules. 2020;25:3710. doi: 10.3390/molecules25163710. PubMed DOI PMC

Kwasnica A., Pachura N., Masztalerz K., Figiel A., Zimmer A., Kupczynski R., Wujcikowska K., Carbonell-Barrachina A.A., Szumny A., Rozanski H. Volatile Composition and Sensory Properties as Quality Attributes of Fresh and Dried Hemp Flowers (Cannabis sativa L.) Foods. 2020;9:1118. doi: 10.3390/foods9081118. PubMed DOI PMC