Ecological research heavily relies on coarse-gridded climate data based on standardized temperature measurements recorded at 2 m height in open landscapes. However, many organisms experience environmental conditions that differ substantially from those captured by these macroclimatic (i.e. free air) temperature grids. In forests, the tree canopy functions as a thermal insulator and buffers sub-canopy microclimatic conditions, thereby affecting biological and ecological processes. To improve the assessment of climatic conditions and climate-change-related impacts on forest-floor biodiversity and functioning, high-resolution temperature grids reflecting forest microclimates are thus urgently needed. Combining more than 1200 time series of in situ near-surface forest temperature with topographical, biological and macroclimatic variables in a machine learning model, we predicted the mean monthly offset between sub-canopy temperature at 15 cm above the surface and free-air temperature over the period 2000-2020 at a spatial resolution of 25 m across Europe. This offset was used to evaluate the difference between microclimate and macroclimate across space and seasons and finally enabled us to calculate mean annual and monthly temperatures for European forest understories. We found that sub-canopy air temperatures differ substantially from free-air temperatures, being on average 2.1°C (standard deviation ± 1.6°C) lower in summer and 2.0°C higher (±0.7°C) in winter across Europe. Additionally, our high-resolution maps expose considerable microclimatic variation within landscapes, not captured by the gridded macroclimatic products. The provided forest sub-canopy temperature maps will enable future research to model below-canopy biological processes and patterns, as well as species distributions more accurately.

Centre for Sustainable Ecosystem Solutions School of Biological Sciences University of Wollongong Wollongong Australia

CREAF Catalonia Spain

CSIC Global Ecology Unit CREAF CSIC UAB Catalonia Spain

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences KU Leuven Leuven Belgium

Department of Ecology and Evolution University of Lausanne Lausanne Switzerland

Department of Ecology Environment and Plant Sciences and Bolin Centre for Climate Research Stockholm University Stockholm Sweden

Department of Ecology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden

Department of Environmental Systems Science ETH Zurich Zurich Switzerland

Department of Forest Botany Dendrology and Geobiocoenology Mendel University in Brno Brno Czech Republic

Department of Geosciences and Geography Helsinki Finland

Department of Plant Biology and Ecology University of Seville Seville Spain

Environment and Sustainability Institute University of Exeter Penryn Campus Penryn UK

European Commission Joint Research Centre Ispra Italy

Experimental Plant Ecology Institute of Botany and Landscape Ecology University of Greifswald Greifswald Germany

Faculty of Ecology and Environmental Sciences Technical University in Zvolen Zvolen Slovakia

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Prague Czech Republic

Faculty of Forestry Technical University in Zvolen Zvolen Slovakia

Faculty of Science and Technology Free University of Bolzano Bolzano Italy

Finnish Meteorological Inst Helsinki Finland

Forest and Nature Lab Department of Environment Ghent University Melle Gontrode Belgium

Forest Services Bolzano Italy

Institute for Agriculture and Forestry Systems in the Mediterranean National Research Council of Italy Perugia Italy

Institute of Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences Průhonice Czech Republic

Musée et Jardins botaniques Cantonaux Lausanne Switzerland

Plant Ecology Albrecht von Haller Institute for Plant Science Georg August University of Goettingen Goettingen Germany

Research Group PLECO University of Antwerp Wilrijk Belgium

Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research WSL Birmensdorf Switzerland

UMR CNRS 7058 'Ecologie et Dynamique des Systèmes Anthropisés' Université de Picardie Jules Verne Amiens France

Wageningen University and Research Wageningen The Netherlands

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Glob Chang Biol. 2022 Dec;28(23):7157-7158. doi: 10.1111/gcb.16440. PubMed

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