Understanding the biology of reproduction of an organismal lineage is important for retracing key evolutionary processes, yet gaining detailed insights often poses major challenges. Planktonic Foraminifera are globally distributed marine microbial eukaryotes and important contributors to the global carbon cycle. They cannot routinely be cultured under laboratory conditions across generations, and thus details of their life cycle remain incomplete. The production of flagellated gametes has long been taken as an indication of exclusively sexual reproduction, but recent research suggests the existence of an additional asexual generation in the life cycle. To gain a better understanding of the reproductive biology of planktonic Foraminifera, we applied a dynamic, individual-based modelling approach with parameters based on laboratory and field observations to test if sexual reproduction is sufficient for maintaining viable populations. We show that temporal synchronization and potentially spatial concentration of gamete release seems inevitable for maintenance of the population under sexual reproduction. We hypothesize that sexual reproduction is likely beneficial during the adaptation to new environments, while population sustenance in stable environments can be ensured through asexual reproduction.

Center for Marine Environmental Sciences Universität Bremen 28359 Bremen Germany

Department of Earth Sciences Université de Genève 1205 Genève Switzerland

Institute of Geology and Palaeontology Univerzita Karlova 128 43 Praha Czech Republic

NORCE Climate and Environment NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS 5007 Bergen Norway

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