BACKGROUND: Morphology of the human cerebral cortex differs across psychiatric disorders, with neurobiology and developmental origins mostly undetermined. Deviations in the tangential growth of the cerebral cortex during pre/perinatal periods may be reflected in individual variations in cortical surface area later in life. METHODS: Interregional profiles of group differences in surface area between cases and controls were generated using T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging from 27,359 individuals including those with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and high general psychopathology (through the Child Behavior Checklist). Similarity of interregional profiles of group differences in surface area and prenatal cell-specific gene expression was assessed. RESULTS: Across the 11 cortical regions, group differences in cortical area for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, and Child Behavior Checklist were dominant in multimodal association cortices. The same interregional profiles were also associated with interregional profiles of (prenatal) gene expression specific to proliferative cells, namely radial glia and intermediate progenitor cells (greater expression, larger difference), as well as differentiated cells, namely excitatory neurons and endothelial and mural cells (greater expression, smaller difference). Finally, these cell types were implicated in known pre/perinatal risk factors for psychosis. Genes coexpressed with radial glia were enriched with genes implicated in congenital abnormalities, birth weight, hypoxia, and starvation. Genes coexpressed with endothelial and mural genes were enriched with genes associated with maternal hypertension and preterm birth. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support a neurodevelopmental model of vulnerability to mental illness whereby prenatal risk factors acting through cell-specific processes lead to deviations from typical brain development during pregnancy.

Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Consorziale Policlinico di Bari Bari Italy

Basic Medical Sciences Neuroscience and Sense Organs University of Bari Aldo Moro Bari Italy

Center for Depression Anxiety and Stress Research McLean Hospital Harvard Medical School Belmont Massachusetts

Centre for Mental Health School of Health Sciences Swinburne University Melbourne Victoria Australia

Centre for Youth Mental Health University of Melbourne Melbourne Australia

Child and Adolescent Psychiatry King's College London London United Kingdom

Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center Cincinnati Ohio

Clinical Neuroimaging Lab Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics Galway Neuroscience Centre College of Medicine Nursing and Health Sciences National University of Ireland Galway Galway Ireland

Clinical Neuropsychology Section Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands

Clinical Translational Neuroscience Laboratory Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior University of California Irvine Irvine California

Core Facility Brain imaging Faculty of Medicine University of Marburg Marburg Germany

Department for Data Capture and Collections Management University Center for Information Technology University of Oslo Oslo Norway

Department of Biological and Medical Psychology University of Bergen Bergen Norway

Department of Biomedical Sciences Florida State University Tallahassee Florida

Department of Biomedicine University of Bergen Bergen Norway

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy Central Institute of Mental Health Medical Faculty Mannheim Heidelberg University Mannheim Germany

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy Psychiatric University Hospital University of Zürich Zurich Switzerland

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University Hospital of Psychiatry University of Zürich Zurich Switzerland

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Faculty of Medicine TU Dresden Germany

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Institute of Psychiatry and Mental Health Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Gregorio Marañón Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental Madrid Spain

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Institute of Psychiatry and Mental Health Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Gregorio Marañón Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental Madrid Spain; School of Medicine Universidad Complutense Madrid Spain

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy University of Tübingen Tübingen Germany

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry University of Groningen University Medical Center Groningen Groningen The Netherlands

Department of Clinical Neuroscience Karolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden

Department of Clinical Radiology University of Münster Münster Germany

Department of Cognitive Neuroscience Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behavior Radboud University Medical Center Nijmegen The Netherlands

Department of Developmental Neuroscience Scientific Institute for Research Hospitalization and Healthcare Stella Maris Foundation Pisa Italy

Department of Epidemiology Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam Rotterdam The Netherlands

Department of Genetics Instituto de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Brazil

Department of Human Genetics Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behavior Radboud University Medical Center Nijmegen The Netherlands

Department of Neuropsychiatry Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Toyama Toyama Japan

Department of Neuroscience and Physiology University of New South Wales Sydney Australia

Department of Paediatrics Department of Psychiatry University of Melbourne Parkville Australia; Department of Psychiatry Department of Psychiatry University of Melbourne Parkville Australia

Department of Physiology and Biophysics Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo Brazil

Department of Psychiatry Amsterdam UMC VUMC Amsterdam The Netherlands

Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry University of California San Francisco San Francisco California

Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences University of California San Francisco San Francisco California

Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences University of Minnesota Medical School Minneapolis Minnesota

Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Barcelona Spain

Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health Neuroscience Institute University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa

Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa

Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy Philipps Universität Marburg Marburg Germany

Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University Medicine Greifswald Greifswald Germany

Department of Psychiatry Autonomous University of Barcelona Cerdanyola del Valles Spain

Department of Psychiatry Department of Psychiatry University of Melbourne Parkville Australia

Department of Psychiatry Faculty of Medicine Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Brazil

Department of Psychiatry Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebrón CIBERSAM Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Barcelona Spain

Department of Psychiatry Marburg University Marburg Germany

Department of Psychiatry Marques de Valdecilla University Hospital Instituto de Investigación Valdecilla CIBERSAM School of Medicine University of Cantabria Santander Spain

Department of Psychiatry Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy University Hospital Frankfurt Goethe University Frankfurt am Main Germany

Department of Psychiatry University of Calgary Calgary Alberta Canada

Department of Psychiatry University of California San Diego San Diego California

Department of Psychiatry University of New Mexico Albuquerque New Mexico

Department of Psychiatry University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pennsylvania

Department of Psychiatry University of Vermont Burlington Vermont

Department of Psychiatry Virgen del Rocio University Hospital Universidad de Sevilla Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla CIBERSAM Sevilla Spain

Department of Psychology Stanford University Stanford California

Department of Psychology University of Oslo Oslo Norway

Department of Psychology University of Würzburg Würzburg Germany

Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam Rotterdam The Netherlands

Department of Radiology University Hospital Marqués de Valdecilla Instituto de Investigación Valdecilla Santander Spain

Departments of Education Science Psychology Communication Science University of Bari Aldo Moro Bari Italy

Departments of Human Genetics and Psychiatry Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behavior Radboud University Medical Center Nijmegen The Netherlands

Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics University of Calgary Calgary Alberta Canada

Discipline of Psychiatry School of Medicine Trinity College Dublin Dublin Ireland

Division of Psychiatry Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences University of Edinburgh Edinburgh United Kingdom

Experimental and Clinical Psychology Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands

Faculty of Health Sciences Oslo Metropolitan University Oslo Norway

FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health Barcelona Spain

FIDMAG Research Foundation Barcelona Spain

Galway Neuroscience Centre Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics Galway Neuroscience Centre College of Medicine Nursing and Health Sciences National University of Ireland Galway Galway Ireland

Georgia State University Atlanta Georgia

German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases Site Rostock Greifswald Greifswald Germany

Graduate Program in Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Faculty of Medicine Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Brazil

Hunter Medical Research Institute Newcastle New South Wales Australia

Imaging Genetics Center USC Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute University of Southern California Marina del Rey California

Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental Barcelona Spain

Institute for Community Medicine University Medicine Greifswald Greifswald Germany

Institute for Translational Psychiatry University of Münster Münster Germany

Institute of Diagnostic Radiology and Neuroradiology University Medicine Greifswald Greifswald Germany

Institute of Medical Sciences University of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada

Institute of Medical Sciences University of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada; Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience Faculty of Medicine and Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sainte Justine University of Montréal Montreal Quebec Canada

Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology University of Gothenburg Gothenburg Sweden

Institute of Neuroscience Hospital Clinic University of Barcelona Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer CIBERSAM Barcelona Spain

Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón Madrid Spain

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore Maryland

Laboratory of Medical Physics and Magnetic Resonance Scientific Institute for Research Hospitalization and Healthcare Stella Maris Foundation Pisa Italy

Laboratory of Neuropsychiatry Santa Lucia Foundation Scientific Institute for Research Hospitalization and Healthcare Rome Italy

Laboratory of Systems Neuroscience and Imaging in Psychiatry Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University Medical Center Göttingen Göttingen Germany

Magnetic Resonance Imaging core facility Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer Barcelona Spain

Maryland Psychiatric Research Center Department of Psychiatry University of Maryland School of Medicine Baltimore Maryland

Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre Department of Psychiatry The University of Melbourne Carlton South Victoria Australia

Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre Department of Psychiatry The University of Melbourne Melbourne Australia

Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre Department of Psychiatry University of Melbourne Melbourne Australia

Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre Department of Psychiatry University of Melbourne Parkville Australia

Mental Health Research Center Moscow Russia

National Centre for Scientific Research Aix Marseille University Marseille France

National Institute for Nuclear Physics Pisa Division Pisa Italy

National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic

Neuroscience Research Australia Sydney Australia

NORMENT Centre Institute of Clinical Medicine University of Oslo Oslo Norway; Division of Mental Health and Addiction Oslo University Hospital Oslo Norway

Norwegian Centre for Mental Disorders Research NORMENT Institute of Clinical Medicine University of Oslo Oslo Norway

NYU Grossman School of Medicine New York New York

Priority Centre for Brain and Mental Health Research The University of Newcastle Callaghan New South Wales Australia

Queensland Brain Institute The University of Queensland Brisbane Queensland Australia

Research Division Institute of Mental Health Singapore Singapore

San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center San Francisco California

School of Medicine and Public Health The University of Newcastle Callaghan New South Wales Australia

School of Medicine The University of Queensland Brisbane Queensland Australia

School of Medicine Universidad Complutense Madrid Spain

School of Psychiatry Sydney Australia

School of Psychology College of Engineering Science and Environment The University of Newcastle Callaghan New South Wales Australia

School of Psychology Deakin University Geelong Victoria Australia

Section for Experimental Psychopathology and Neuroimaging Department of General Psychiatry Heidelberg University Hospital Heidelberg Germany

SUNY Upstate Medical University Syracuse New York

The Hospital for Sick Children and Departments of Physiology and Nutritional Sciences University of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada

Translational Developmental Neuroscience Section Division of Psychological and Social Medicine and Developmental Neurosciences Faculty of Medicine Technische Universität Dresden Germany

Trinity Institute of Neuroscience School of Medicine Trinity College Dublin Dublin Ireland

University Children's Hospital Zürich Zurich Switzerland

USC Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute USC Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute University of Southern California Marina del Rey California

West Region Institute of Mental Health Singapore Singapore

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