Many legacy and emerging flame retardants (FRs) have adverse human and environmental health effects. This study reports legacy and emerging FRs in children from nine European countries from the HBM4EU aligned studies. Studies from Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Denmark, France, Greece, Slovenia, Slovakia, and Norway conducted between 2014 and 2021 provided data on FRs in blood and urine from 2136 children. All samples were collected and analyzed in alignment with the HBM4EU protocols. Ten halogenated FRs were quantified in blood, and four organophosphate flame retardants (OPFR) metabolites quantified in urine. Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) were infrequently detected (<16% of samples). BDE-47 was quantified in blood from Greece, France, and Norway, with France (0.36 ng/g lipid) having the highest concentrations. BDE-153 and -209 were detected in <40% of samples. Dechlorane Plus (DP) was quantified in blood from four countries, with notably high median concentrations of 16 ng/g lipid in Slovenian children. OPFR metabolites had a higher detection frequency than other halogenated FRs. Diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) was quantified in 99% of samples across 8 countries at levels ∼5 times higher than other OPFR metabolites (highest median in Slovenia of 2.43 ng/g lipid). FR concentrations were associated with lifestyle factors such as cleaning frequency, employment status of the father of the household, and renovation status of the house, among others. The concentrations of BDE-47 in children from this study were similar to or lower than FRs found in adult matrices in previous studies, suggesting lower recent exposure and effectiveness of PBDE restrictions.

Department of Environmental Health Norwegian Institute of Public Health Oslo Norway

Department of Environmental Medicine Institute of Public Health University of Southern Denmark Odense 5000 Denmark

Department of Environmental Sciences Jožef Stefan Institute Ljubljana 1000 Slovenia

Environmental Engineering Laboratory Department of Chemical Engineering Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 54124 Thessaloniki Greece; HERACLES Research Center on the Exposome and Health Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation Balkan Center Bldg B 10th km Thessaloniki Thermi Road 57001 Greece

Environmental Engineering Laboratory Department of Chemical Engineering Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 54124 Thessaloniki Greece; HERACLES Research Center on the Exposome and Health Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation Balkan Center Bldg B 10th km Thessaloniki Thermi Road 57001 Greece; Environmental Health Engineering Institute of Advanced Study Palazzo del Broletto Piazza Della Vittoria 15 27100 Pavia Italy

Faculty of Public Health Slovak Medical University Bratislava 833 03 Slovakia

German Environment Agency 06844 Dessau Roßlau Germany

IPASUM Institute and Outpatient Clinic of Occupational Social and Environmental Medicine Henkestrasse 9 11 91054 Erlangen Germany

National Centre for Environmental Health Instituto de Salud Carlos 3 Majadahonda Madrid Spain

RECETOX Faculty of Science Masaryk University Kotlarska 2 Brno Czech Republic

Santé Publique France French Public Health Agency Saint Maurice 94415 France

Toxicological Center University of Antwerp 2610 Wilrijk Belgium

VITO Health Flemish Institute for Technological Research Mol 2400 Belgium

VITO Health Flemish Institute for Technological Research Mol 2400 Belgium; Department of Biomedical Sciences University of Antwerp 2020 Antwerp Belgium

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment Section Chemistry for Environment and Health De Boelelaan 1108 1081 HZ Amsterdam Netherlands

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Abbasi G., Li L., Breivik K. Global historical stocks and emissions of PBDEs. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019;53:6330–6340. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.8b07032. PubMed DOI

Ali N., Dirtu A.C., van den Eede N., Goosey E., Harrad S., Neels H., ’t Mannetje A., Coakley J., Douwes J., Covaci A. Occurrence of alternative flame retardants in indoor dust from New Zealand: indoor sources and human exposure assessment. Chemosphere. 2012;88:1276–1282. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.03.100. PubMed DOI

Angerer J., Ewers U., Wilhelm M. Human biomonitoring: state of the art. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2007 doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2007.01.024. PubMed DOI

Angerer J., Aylward L.L., Hays S.M., Heinzow B., Wilhelm M. Human biomonitoring assessment values: approaches and data requirements. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2011;214:348–360. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.06.002. PubMed DOI

Au W.W. International journal of hygiene and environmental health commentary susceptibility of children to environmental toxic substances. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2002 PubMed

Aznar-Alemany Ò., Yang X., Alonso M.B., Costa E.S., Torres J.P.M., Malm O., Barceló D., Eljarrat E. Preliminary study of long-range transport of halogenated flame retardants using Antarctic marine mammals. Sci. Total Environ. 2019;650:1889–1897. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.287. PubMed DOI

Bajard L., Melymuk L., Blaha L. Prioritization of hazards of novel flame retardants using the mechanistic toxicology information from ToxCast and Adverse Outcome Pathways. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2019 doi: 10.1186/s12302-019-0195-z. DOI

Bajard L., Negi C.K., Mustieles V., Melymuk L., Jomini S., Barthelemy-Berneron J., Fernandez M.F., Blaha L. Endocrine disrupting potential of replacement flame retardants – review of current knowledge for nuclear receptors associated with reproductive outcomes. Environ. Int. 2021 doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106550. PubMed DOI

Barón E., Dissanayake A., Vilà-Cano J., Crowther C., Readman J.W., Jha A.N., Eljarrat E., Barceló D. Evaluation of the genotoxic and physiological effects of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) and dechlorane plus (DP) flame retardants in marine mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016;50:2700–2708. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05814. PubMed DOI

Behl M., Rice J.R., Smith M.v., Co C.A., Bridge M.F., Hsieh J.H., Freedman J.H., Boyd W.A. Comparative toxicity of organophosphate flame retardants and polybrominated diphenyl ethers to Caenorhabditis elegans. Toxicol. Sci. 2016;154:241–252. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw162. PubMed DOI PMC

Bernert J.T., Turner W.E., Patterson D.G., Needham L.L. Calculation of serum “total lipid” concentrations for the adjustment of persistent organohalogen toxicant measurements in human samples. Chemosphere. 2007;68:824–831. doi: 10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2007.02.043. PubMed DOI

Bernhardt P.W., Wang H.J., Zhang D. Statistical methods for generalized linear models with covariates subject to detection limits. Statistics in biosciences. 2015;7:68–89. doi: 10.1007/s12561-013-9099-4. PubMed DOI PMC

Blum A., Behl M., Birnbaum L.S., Diamond M.L., Phillips A., Singla V., Sipes N.S., Stapleton H.M., Venier M. Organophosphate ester flame retardants: are they a regrettable substitution for polybrominated diphenyl ethers? Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2019 doi: 10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00582. PubMed DOI PMC

Brasseur C., Pirard C., Scholl G., de Pauw E., Viel J.F., Shen L., Reiner E.J., Focant J.F. Levels of dechloranes and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in human serum from France. Environ. Int. 2014;65:33–40. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2013.12.014. PubMed DOI

Butt C.M., Congleton J., Hoffman K., Fang M., Stapleton H.M. Metabolites of organophosphate flame retardants and 2-ethylhexyl tetrabromobenzoate in urine from paired mothers and toddlers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014;48:10432–10438. doi: 10.1021/es5025299. PubMed DOI

Carignan C.C., Butt C.M., Stapleton H.M., Meeker J.D., Minguez-Alarcón L., Williams P.L., Hauser R. Influence of storage vial material on measurement of organophosphate flame retardant metabolites in urine. Chemosphere. 2017;181:440–446. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.04.083. PubMed DOI PMC

Caspersen I.H., Kvalem H.E., Haugen M., Brantsæter A.L., Meltzer H.M., Alexander J., Thomsen C., Frøshaug M., Bremnes N.M.B., Broadwell S.L., Granum B., Kogevinas M., Knutsen H.K. Determinants of plasma PCB, brominated flame retardants, and organochlorine pesticides in pregnant women and 3 year old children in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study. Environ. Res. 2016;146:136–144. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2015.12.020. PubMed DOI

Caspersen I.H., Thomsen C., Haug L.S., Knutsen H.K., Brantsæter A.L., Papadopoulou E., Erlund I., Lundh T., Alexander J., Meltzer H.M. Patterns and dietary determinants of essential and toxic elements in blood measured in mid-pregnancy: the Norwegian Environmental Biobank. Sci. Total Environ. 2019;671:299–308. doi: 10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2019.03.291. PubMed DOI

Cequier E., Sakhi A.K., Marcé R.M., Becher G., Thomsen C. Human exposure pathways to organophosphate triesters - a biomonitoring study of mother-child pairs. Environ. Int. 2015;75:159–165. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.009. PubMed DOI

Chen Y., Fang J., Ren L., Fan R., Zhang J., Liu G., Zhou L., Chen D., Yu Y., Lu S. Urinary metabolites of organophosphate esters in children in South China: concentrations, profiles and estimated daily intake. Environ. Pollut. 2018;235:358–364. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.092. PubMed DOI

Convention Stockholm. 2019. Listing of POPs in the Stockholm Convention [WWW Document]http://www.pops.int/TheConvention/ThePOPs/AllPOPs/tabid/2509/Default.aspx 6.8.22.

Covaci A., Harrad S., Abdallah M.A.E., Ali N., Law R.J., Herzke D., de Wit C.A. Novel brominated flame retardants: a review of their analysis, environmental fate and behaviour. Environ. Int. 2011 doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2010.11.007. PubMed DOI

Crosse J.D., Shore R.F., Jones K.C., Pereira M.G. Key factors affecting liver PBDE concentrations in sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus) Environ. Pollut. 2013;177:171–176. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.006. PubMed DOI

Darrow L.A., Jacobson M.H., Preston E.v., Lee G.E., Panuwet P., Hunter R.E., Marder M.E., Marcus M., Barr D.B. Predictors of serum polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) concentrations among children aged 1-5 years. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017;51:645–654. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04696. PubMed DOI PMC

David M., Schwedler G., Reiber L., Tolonen H., Andersson A.M., Esteban López M., Joas A., Schöpel M., Polcher A., Kolossa-Gehring M. Learning from previous work and finding synergies in the domains of public and environmental health: EU-funded projects BRIDGE Health and HBM4EU. Arch. Publ. Health. 2020;78 doi: 10.1186/s13690-020-00460-9. PubMed DOI PMC

Dodson R.E., van den Eede N., Covaci A., Perovich L.J., Brody J.G., Rudel R.A. Urinary biomonitoring of phosphate flame retardants: levels in California adults and recommendations for future studies. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014;48:13625–13633. doi: 10.1021/es503445c. PubMed DOI PMC

Dvorakova D., Pulkrabova J., Gramblicka T., Polachova A., Buresova M., López M.E., Castaño A., Nübler S., Haji-Abbas-Zarrabi K., Klausner N., Göen T., Mol H., Koch H.M., Vaccher V., Antignac J.P., Haug L.S., Vorkamp K., Hajslova J. Interlaboratory comparison investigations (ICIs) and external quality assurance schemes (EQUASs) for flame retardant analysis in biological matrices: results from the HBM4EU project. Environ. Res. 2021;202 doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111705. PubMed DOI

Esteban López M., Göen T., Mol H., Nübler S., Haji-Abbas-Zarrabi K., Koch H.M., Kasper-Sonnenberg M., Dvorakova D., Hajslova J., Antignac J.P., Vaccher V., Elbers I., Thomsen C., Vorkamp K., Pedraza – Díaz S., Kolossa-Gehring M., Castaño A. The European human biomonitoring platform - design and implementation of a laboratory quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) programme for selected priority chemicals. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2021;234 doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113740. PubMed DOI

European Commission GerES V - German environmental survey 2014-2017 [WWW document] 2021. DOI

European Commission ESTEBAN - environment, health, biomonitoring, physical activity. Nutrition : Esteban [WWW Document] 2021 https://ipchem.jrc.ec.europa.eu/#showmetadata/ESTEBAN 6.8.22.

Fischer D., Hooper K., Athanasiadou M., Athanassiadis I., Bergman Å. Children show highest levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in a California family of four: a case study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006;114:1581–1584. doi: 10.1289/ehp.8554. PubMed DOI PMC

Frederiksen M., Vorkamp K., Thomsen M., Knudsen L.E. Human internal and external exposure to PBDEs - a review of levels and sources. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2009 doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2008.04.005. PubMed DOI

Fromme H., Lahrz T., Kraft M., Fembacher L., Mach C., Dietrich S., Burkardt R., Völkel W., Göen T. Organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers in the air and dust in German daycare centers and human biomonitoring in visiting children (LUPE 3) Environ. Int. 2014;71:158–163. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.06.016. PubMed DOI

Ganzleben C., Antignac J.P., Barouki R., Castaño A., Fiddicke U., Klánová J., Lebret E., Olea N., Sarigiannis D., Schoeters G.R., Sepai O., Tolonen H., Kolossa-Gehring M. Human biomonitoring as a tool to support chemicals regulation in the European Union. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2017 doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.01.007. PubMed DOI

Garí M., Grimalt J.O. Inverse age-dependent accumulation of decabromodiphenyl ether and other PBDEs in serum from a general adult population. Environ. Int. 2013;54:119–127. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2013.01.012. PubMed DOI

Gibson E.A., Stapleton H.M., Calero L., Holmes D., Burke K., Martinez R., Cortes B., Nematollahi A., Evans D., Anderson K.A., Herbstman J.B. Differential exposure to organophosphate flame retardants in mother-child pairs. Chemosphere. 2019;219:567–573. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.008. PubMed DOI PMC

Gilles L., Govarts E., Rambaud L., Vogel N., Castaño A., Esteban López M., Rodriguez Martin L., Koppen G., Remy S., Vrijheid M., Montazeri P., Birks L., Sepai O., Stewart L., Fiddicke U., Loots I., Knudsen L.E., Kolossa-Gehring M., Schoeters G. HBM4EU combines and harmonises human biomonitoring data across the EU, building on existing capacity – the HBM4EU survey. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2021;237 doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113809. PubMed DOI PMC

Gilles L., Govarts E., Rodriguez Martin L., Andersson A.-M., Appenzeller B.M.R., Barbone F., Castaño A., Coertjens D., den Hond E., Dzhedzheia V., Eržen I., Esteban López M., Fábelová L., Fillol C., Franken C., Frederiksen H., Gabriel C., Huag L.S., Horvat M., Halldórsson T.I., Janasik B., Holcer N.J., Kakucs R., Karakitsios S., Katsonouri A., Klánová J., Kold-Jensen T., Kolossa-Gehring M., Konstantinou C., Koponen J., Lignell S., Lindroos A.K., Makris K.C., Mazej D., Morrens B., Murínová L.P., Namorado S., Pedraza-Diaz S., Peisker J., Probst-Hensch N., Rambaud L., Rosolen V., Rucic E., Rüther M., Sarigiannis D., Snoj Tratnik J., Standaert A., Stewart L., Szigeti T., Thomsen C., Tolonen H., Eiríksdóttir Á., van Nieuwenhuyse A., Verheyen V.J., Vlaanderen J., Vogel N., Wasowicz W., Weber T., Zock J.-P., Sepai O., Schoeters G. Harmonization of human biomonitoring studies in europe:characteristics of the HBM4EU-aligned studies participants. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health. 2022;19:6787. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19116787. PubMed DOI PMC

Govarts E., Portengen L., Lambrechts N., Bruckers L., den Hond E., Covaci A., Nelen V., Nawrot T.S., Loots I., Sioen I., Baeyens W., Morrens B., Schoeters G., Vermeulen R. Early-life exposure to multiple persistent organic pollutants and metals and birth weight: pooled analysis in four Flemish birth cohorts. Environ. Int. 2020;145 doi: 10.1016/J.ENVINT.2020.106149. PubMed DOI

Govarts E., Gilles L., Rambaud L., Vogel N., Montazeri P., Berglund M., Santonen T., Katsonouri A. Deliverable 10.12 Update statistical analysis plan for the co-funded studies of WP8 - HBM4EU - science and policy for a healthy future [WWW Document] 2021. https://www.hbm4eu.eu/work-packages/deliverable-10-12-update-statistical-analysis-plan-for-the-co-funded-studies-of-wp8/ 6.8.22.

Guo W., Holden A., Smith S.C., Gephart R., Petreas M., Park J.S. PBDE levels in breast milk are decreasing in California. Chemosphere. 2016;150:505–513. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.11.032. PubMed DOI

Haug L.S., Sakhi A.K., Cequier E., Casas M., Maitre L., Basagana X., Andrusaityte S., Chalkiadaki G., Chatzi L., Coen M., de Bont J., Dedele A., Ferrand J., Grazuleviciene R., Gonzalez J.R., Gutzkow K.B., Keun H., McEachan R., Meltzer H.M., Petraviciene I., Robinson O., Saulnier P.J., Slama R., Sunyer J., Urquiza J., Vafeiadi M., Wright J., Vrijheid M., Thomsen C. In-utero and childhood chemical exposome in six European mother-child cohorts. Environ. Int. 2018;121:751–763. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.09.056. PubMed DOI

He C.T., Zheng J., Qiao L., Chen S.J., Yang J.Z., Yuan J.G., Yang Z.Y., Mai B.X. Occurrence of organophosphorus flame retardants in indoor dust in multiple microenvironments of southern China and implications for human exposure. Chemosphere. 2015;133:47–52. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.03.043. PubMed DOI

He C., English K., Baduel C., Thai P., Jagals P., Ware R.S., Li Y., Wang X., Sly P.D., Mueller J.F. Concentrations of organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers in urine from young children in Queensland, Australia and associations with environmental and behavioural factors. Environ. Res. 2018;164:262–270. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.02.040. PubMed DOI

He C., Wang X., Tang S., Thai P., Li Z., Baduel C., Mueller J.F. Concentrations of organophosphate esters and their specific metabolites in food in southeast Queensland, Australia: is dietary exposure an important pathway of organophosphate esters and their metabolites? Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018;52:12765–12773. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.8b03043. PubMed DOI

He J., Wang Z., Zhao L., Ma H., Huang J., Li H., Mao X., Huang T., Gao H., Ma J. Gridded emission inventory of organophosphorus flame retardants in China and inventory validation. Environ. Pollut. 2021;290 doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118071. PubMed DOI

Hertz-Picciotto I., Trnovec T., Kočan A., Charles M.J., Čižnar P., Langer P., Sovčikova E., James R. PCBs and early childhood development in Slovakia: study design and background. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2003;12:208–214.

Hoffman K., Butt C.M., Webster T.F., Preston E.v., Hammel S.C., Makey C., Lorenzo A.M., Cooper E.M., Carignan C., Meeker J.D., Hauser R., Soubry A., Murphy S.K., Price T.M., Hoyo C., Mendelsohn E., Congleton J., Daniels J.L., Stapleton H.M. Temporal trends in exposure to organophosphate flame retardants in the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2017;4:112–118. doi: 10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00475. PubMed DOI PMC

Horrocks A.R. Flame retardant challenges for textiles and fibres: new chemistry versus innovatory solutions. Polym. Degrad. Stabil. 2011;96:377–392. doi: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2010.03.036. DOI

Hou R., Xu Y., Wang Z. Review of OPFRs in animals and humans: absorption, bioaccumulation, metabolism, and internal exposure research. Chemosphere. 2016 doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.03.003. PubMed DOI

Ionas A.C., Ulevicus J., Gómez A.B., Brandsma S.H., Leonards P.E.G., van de Bor M., Covaci A. Children's exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) through mouthing toys. Environ. Int. 2016;87:101–107. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2015.11.018. PubMed DOI

Jílková S., Melymuk L., Vojta Š., Vykoukalová M., Bohlin-Nizzetto P., Klánová J. Small-scale spatial variability of flame retardants in indoor dust and implications for dust sampling. Chemosphere. 2018;206:132–141. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.04.146. PubMed DOI

Joas R., Casteleyn L., Biot P., Kolossa-Gehring M., Castano A., Angerer J., Schoeters G., Sepai O., Knudsen L.E., Joas A., Horvat M., Bloemen L. Harmonised human biomonitoring in Europe: activities towards an EU HBM framework. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2012;215:172–175. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.08.010. PubMed DOI

Johnson P.I., Stapleton H.M., Sjodin A., Meeker J.D. Relationships between polybrominated diphenyl ether concentrations in house dust and serum. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010;44:5627–5632. doi: 10.1021/es100697q. PubMed DOI PMC

Kemmlein S., Herzke D., Law R.J. Brominated flame retardants in the European chemicals policy of REACH-Regulation and determination in materials. J. Chromatogr. A. 2009 doi: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.05.085. PubMed DOI

Koppen G., Govarts E., Vanermen G., Voorspoels S., Govindan M., Dewolf M.C., den Hond E., Biot P., Casteleyn L., Kolossa-Gehring M., Schwedler G., Angerer J., Koch H.M., Schindler B.K., Castaño A., López M.E., Sepai O., Exley K., Bloemen L., Knudsen L.E., Joas R., Joas A., Schoeters G., Covaci A. Mothers and children are related, even in exposure to chemicals present in common consumer products. Environ. Res. 2019;175:297–307. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.05.023. PubMed DOI

Kyhl H.B., Jensen T.K., Barington T., Buhl S., Norberg L.A., Jørgensen J.S., Jensen D.F.G., Christesen H.T., Lamont R.F., Husby S. The odense child cohort: aims, design, and cohort profile. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 2015;29:250–258. doi: 10.1111/PPE.12183. PubMed DOI

EnvE Lab CROME – life. Cross-mediterranean environment and health Network [WWW document] 2022. https://www.enve-lab.eu/index.php/work/crome-life/ 6.20.22.

Lange R., Apel P., Rousselle C., Charles S., Sissoko F., Kolossa-Gehring M., Ougier E. The European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU): human biomonitoring guidance values for selected phthalates and a substitute plasticizer. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2021;234 doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113722. PubMed DOI

Lenters V., Thomsen C., Smit L.A.M., Jönsson B.A.G., Pedersen H.S., Ludwicki J.K., Zviezdai V., Piersma A.H., Toft G., Bonde J.P., Becher G., Vermeulen R., Heederik D. Serum concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and a polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) in men from Greenland, Poland and Ukraine. Environ. Int. 2013;61:8–16. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2013.09.001. PubMed DOI

Liu X., Folk E. Sorption and migration of organophosphate flame retardants between sources and settled dust. Chemosphere. 2021;278 doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130415. PubMed DOI PMC

Liu Y., Gong S., Ye L., Li J., Liu C., Chen D., Fang M., Letcher R.J., Su G. Organophosphate (OP) diesters and a review of sources, chemical properties, environmental occurrence, adverse effects, and future directions. Environ. Int. 2021 doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106691. PubMed DOI

Louro H., Heinälä M., Bessems J., Buekers J., Vermeire T., Woutersen M., van Engelen J., Borges T., Rousselle C., Ougier E., Alvito P., Martins C., Assunção R., Silva M.J., Pronk A., Schaddelee-Scholten B., del Carmen Gonzalez M., de Alba M., Castaño A., Viegas S., Humar-Juric T., Kononenko L., Lampen A., Vinggaard A.M., Schoeters G., Kolossa-Gehring M., Santonen T. Human biomonitoring in health risk assessment in Europe: current practices and recommendations for the future. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2019 doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.05.009. PubMed DOI

McGrath T.J., Morrison P.D., Ball A.S., Clarke B.O. Spatial distribution of novel and legacy brominated flame retardants in soils surrounding two Australian electronic waste recycling facilities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018;52:8194–8204. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.8b02469. PubMed DOI

Melymuk L., Goosey E., Riddell N., Diamond M.L. Interlaboratory study of novel halogenated flame retardants: INTERFLAB. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2015;407:6759–6769. doi: 10.1007/S00216-015-8843-7/FIGURES/7. PubMed DOI

Morel C., Schroeder H., Emond C., Turner J.D., Lichtfouse E., Grova N. Brominated flame retardants, a cornelian dilemma. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2022 doi: 10.1007/s10311-022-01392-2. PubMed DOI PMC

Morello-Frosch R., Cushing L.J., Jesdale B.M., Schwartz J.M., Guo W., Guo T., Wang M., Harwani S., Petropoulou S.S.E., Duong W., Park J.S., Petreas M., Gajek R., Alvaran J., She J., Dobraca D., Das R., Woodruff T.J. Environmental chemicals in an urban population of pregnant women and their newborns from San Francisco. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016;50:12464–12472. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.6b03492. PubMed DOI PMC

Moya J., Bearer C.F., Etzel R.A. 2004. Children's Behavior and Physiology and How it Affects Exposure to Environmental Contaminants. PubMed

Pan H.Y., Li J.F.T., Li X.H., Yang Y.L., Qin Z.F., Li J.B., Li Y.Y. Transfer of dechlorane plus between human breast milk and adipose tissue and comparison with legacy lipophilic compounds. Environ. Pollut. 2020;265 doi: 10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2020.115096. PubMed DOI

Pantelaki I., Voutsa D. Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs): a review on analytical methods and occurrence in wastewater and aquatic environment. Sci. Total Environ. 2019 doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.286. PubMed DOI

Pechlivani F., Vassilakou T., Sarafidou J., Zachou T., Anastasiou C.A., Sidossis L.S. Prevalence and determinants of exclusive breastfeeding during hospital stay in the area of Athens, Greece. Acta Paediatrica, International Journal of Paediatrics. 2005;94:928–934. doi: 10.1080/08035250410023746. PubMed DOI

Percy Z., la Guardia M.J., Xu Y., Hale R.C., Dietrich K.N., Lanphear B.P., Yolton K., Vuong A.M., Cecil K.M., Braun J.M., Xie C., Chen A. Concentrations and loadings of organophosphate and replacement brominated flame retardants in house dust from the home study during the PBDE phase-out. Chemosphere. 2020;239 doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124701. PubMed DOI PMC

Phillips A.L., Hammel S.C., Hoffman K., Lorenzo A.M., Chen A., Webster T.F., Stapleton H.M. Children's residential exposure to organophosphate ester flame retardants and plasticizers: investigating exposure pathways in the TESIE study. Environ. Int. 2018;116:176–185. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.04.013. PubMed DOI PMC

Pietroń W.J., Małagocki P. Quantification of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in food. A review. Talanta. 2017. PubMed DOI

Poma G., Glynn A., Malarvannan G., Covaci A., Darnerud P.O. Dietary intake of phosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) using Swedish food market basket estimations. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2017;100:1–7. doi: 10.1016/J.FCT.2016.12.011. PubMed DOI

Preston E.v., McClean M.D., Claus Henn B., Stapleton H.M., Braverman L.E., Pearce E.N., Makey C.M., Webster T.F. Associations between urinary diphenyl phosphate and thyroid function. Environ. Int. 2017;101:158–164. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.01.020. PubMed DOI PMC

R Core Team . R Foundation for Statistical Computing; 2019. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.

Reddam A., Tait G., Herkert N., Hammel S.C., Stapleton H.M., Volz D.C. Longer commutes are associated with increased human exposure to tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate. Environ. Int. 2020;136 doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105499. PubMed DOI PMC

Sharkey M., Harrad S., Abou-Elwafa Abdallah M., Drage D.S., Berresheim H. Phasing-out of legacy brominated flame retardants: the UNEP Stockholm Convention and other legislative action worldwide. Environ. Int. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106041. PubMed DOI

Siddiqi M.A., Laessig R.H., Reed K.D. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): new pollutants-old diseases. Clin. Med. Res. 2003 PubMed PMC

Sjödin A., Päpke O., McGahee E., Focant J.F., Jones R.S., Pless-Mulloli T., Toms L.M.L., Herrmann T., Müller J., Needham L.L., Patterson D.G. Concentration of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in household dust from various countries. Chemosphere. 2008;73 doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.08.075. PubMed DOI

Sochorová L., Hanzlíková L., Černá M., Drgáčová A., Fialová A., Švarcová A., Gramblička T., Pulkrabová J. Perfluorinated alkylated substances and brominated flame retardants in serum of the Czech adult population. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health. 2017;220:235–243. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.09.003. PubMed DOI

Stajnko A., Snoj Tratnik J., Kosjek T., Mazej D., Jagodic M., Eržen I., Horvat M. Seasonal glyphosate and AMPA levels in urine of children and adolescents living in rural regions of Northeastern Slovenia. Environ. Int. 2020;143 doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105985. PubMed DOI

Stapleton H.M. Instrumental methods and challenges in quantifying polybrominated diphenyl ethers in environmental extracts: a review. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2006 doi: 10.1007/s00216-006-0400-y. PubMed DOI PMC

Stieger G., Scheringer M., Ng C.A., Hungerbühler K. Assessing the persistence, bioaccumulation potential and toxicity of brominated flame retardants: data availability and quality for 36 alternative brominated flame retardants. Chemosphere. 2014;116:118–123. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.01.083. PubMed DOI

Sugeng E.J., de Cock M., Leonards P.E.G., van de Bor M. Electronics, interior decoration and cleaning patterns affect flame retardant levels in the dust from Dutch residences. Sci. Total Environ. 2018;645:1144–1152. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.127. PubMed DOI

Sun Y., Gong X., Lin W., Liu Y., Wang Y., Wu M., Kannan K., Ma J. Metabolites of organophosphate ester flame retardants in urine from Shanghai, China. Environ. Res. 2018;164:507–515. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.03.031. PubMed DOI

Sverko E., Tomy G.T., Reiner E.J., Li Y.F., McCarry B.E., Arnot J.A., Law R.J., Hites R.A. Dechlorane plus and related compounds in the environment: a review. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011;45:5088–5098. doi: 10.1021/es2003028. PubMed DOI

Theurich M.A., Davanzo R., Busck-Rasmussen M., Díaz-Gómez N.M., Brennan C., Kylberg E., Bærug A., McHugh L., Weikert C., Abraham K., Koletzko B. Breastfeeding rates and programs in europe: a survey of 11 national breastfeeding committees and representatives. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2019;68:400–407. doi: 10.1097/MPG.0000000000002234. PubMed DOI

Thomsen C., Liane V.H., Becher G. Automated solid-phase extraction for the determination of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyls in serum-application on archived Norwegian samples from 1977 to 2003. J. Chromatogr., B: Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 2007;846:252–263. doi: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.09.011. PubMed DOI

Toms L.M.L., Sjödin A., Harden F., Hobson P., Jones R., Edenfield E., Mueller J.F. Serum polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) levels are higher in children (2–5 Years of age) than in infants and adults. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009;117:1461–1465. doi: 10.1289/EHP.0900596. PubMed DOI PMC

van den Eede N., Heffernan A.L., Aylward L.L., Hobson P., Neels H., Mueller J.F., Covaci A. Age as a determinant of phosphate flame retardant exposure of the Australian population and identification of novel urinary PFR metabolites. Environ. Int. 2015;74:1–8. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.09.005. PubMed DOI

Wang Y., Li W., Martínez-Moral M.P., Sun H., Kannan K. Metabolites of organophosphate esters in urine from the United States: concentrations, temporal variability, and exposure assessment. Environ. Int. 2019;122:213–221. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.11.007. PubMed DOI PMC

Wu N., Herrmann T., Paepke O., Tickner J., Hale R., Harvey E., la Guardia M., McClean M.D., Webster T.F. Human exposure to PBDEs: associations of PBDE body burdens with food consumption and house dust concentrations. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007;41:1584–1589. doi: 10.1021/es0620282. PubMed DOI

Xu F., Tay J.H., Covaci A., Padilla-Sánchez J.A., Papadopoulou E., Haug L.S., Neels H., Sellström U., de Wit C.A. Assessment of dietary exposure to organohalogen contaminants, legacy and emerging flame retardants in a Norwegian cohort. Environ. Int. 2017;102:236–243. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.03.009. PubMed DOI

Yadav I.C., Devi N.L., Zhong G., Li J., Zhang G., Covaci A. Occurrence and fate of organophosphate ester flame retardants and plasticizers in indoor air and dust of Nepal: implication for human exposure. Environ. Pollut. 2017;229:668–678. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.06.089. PubMed DOI

Zhang B., Lu S., Huang M., Zhou M., Zhou Z., Zheng H., Jiang Y., Bai X., Zhang T. Urinary metabolites of organophosphate flame retardants in 0–5-year-old children: potential exposure risk for inpatients and home-stay infants. Environ. Pollut. 2018;243:318–325. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.08.051. PubMed DOI

Elly Den Hond, Eva Govarts, Hanny Willems, Roel Smolders, Ludwine Casteleyn, Marike Kolossa-Gehring, Gerda Schwedler, Margarete Seiwert, Ulrike Fiddicke, Argelia Castaño, Marta Esteban, Jürgen Angerer, Holger M. Koch, Birgit K. Schindler, Ovnair Sepai, Karen Exley, Louis Bloemen, Milena Horvat, Lisbeth E. Knudsen, Anke Joas, Reinhard Joas, Pierre Biot, Dominique Aerts, Gudrun Koppen, Andromachi Katsonouri, Adamos Hadjipanayis, Andrea Krskova, Marek Maly, Thit A. Mørck, Peter Rudnai, Szilvia Kozepesy, Maurice Mulcahy, Rory Mannion, Arno C. Gutleb, Marc E. Fischer, Danuta Ligocka, Marek Jakubowski, M. Fátima Reis, Sónia Namorado, Anca Elena Gurzau, Ioana-Rodica Lupsa, Katarina Halzlova, Michal Jajcaj, Darja Mazej, Janja Snoj Tratnik, Ana López, Estrella Lopez, Marika Berglund, Kristin Larsson, Andrea Lehmann, Pierre Crettaz, and Greet Schoeters, 2015, First Steps toward Harmonized Human Biomonitoring in Europe: Demonstration Project to Perform Human Biomonitoring on a European Scale. Environ. Health Perspect., 123:3 ,10.1289/ehp.1408616. PubMed PMC

Effects of novel flame retardants tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) and triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) on function and homeostasis in human and rat pancreatic beta-cell lines

Has Regulatory Action Reduced Human Exposure to Flame Retardants?

Cognitive Performance and Exposure to Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Children: Evidence from a Cross-Sectional Analysis of Two European Mother-Child Cohorts