European forests are threatened by increasing numbers of invasive pests and pathogens. Over the past century, Lecanosticta acicola, a foliar pathogen predominantly of Pinus spp., has expanded its range globally, and is increasing in impact. Lecanosticta acicola causes brown spot needle blight, resulting in premature defoliation, reduced growth, and mortality in some hosts. Originating from southern regions of North American, it devastated forests in the USA's southern states in the early twentieth century, and in 1942 was discovered in Spain. Derived from Euphresco project 'Brownspotrisk,' this study aimed to establish the current distribution of Lecanosticta species, and assess the risks of L. acicola to European forests. Pathogen reports from the literature, and new/ unpublished survey data were combined into an open-access geo-database (http://www.portalofforestpathology.com), and used to visualise the pathogen's range, infer its climatic tolerance, and update its host range. Lecanosticta species have now been recorded in 44 countries, mostly in the northern hemisphere. The type species, L. acicola, has increased its range in recent years, and is present in 24 out of the 26 European countries where data were available. Other species of Lecanosticta are largely restricted to Mexico and Central America, and recently Colombia. The geo-database records demonstrate that L. acicola tolerates a wide range of climates across the northern hemisphere, and indicate its potential to colonise Pinus spp. forests across large swathes of the Europe. Preliminary analyses suggest L. acicola could affect 62% of global Pinus species area by the end of this century, under climate change predictions. Although its host range appears slightly narrower than the similar Dothistroma species, Lecanosticta species were recorded on 70 host taxa, mostly Pinus spp., but including, Cedrus and Picea spp. Twenty-three, including species of critical ecological, environmental and economic significance in Europe, are highly susceptible to L. acicola, suffering heavy defoliation and sometimes mortality. Variation in apparent susceptibility between reports could reflect variation between regions in the hosts' genetic make-up, but could also reflect the significant variation in L. acicola populations and lineages found across Europe. This study served to highlight significant gaps in our understanding of the pathogen's behaviour. Lecanosticta acicola has recently been downgraded from an A1 quarantine pest to a regulated non quarantine pathogen, and is now widely distributed across Europe. With a need to consider disease management, this study also explored global BSNB strategies, and used Case Studies to summarise the tactics employed to date in Europe.

Austrian Research Centre for Forests BFW Seckendorff Gudent Weg 8 1131 Vienna Austria

Bavarian State Institute of Forestry Hans Carl von Carlowitz Platz 1 85354 Freising Germany

Centre of Forest Research National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology C Coruna 28040 Madrid Spain

Département de la santé des forêts DGAL SDQSPV Ministère de l'Agriculture et de l'Alimentation Paris France

Department Forest Ecosystems Protection University of Agriculture in Kraków 31 425 Kraków Poland

Department of Forest Management and Applied Geoinformatics Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology Mendel University in Brno Zemědělská 1 613 00 Czech Republic

Department of Plant Pathology and Mycology Institute of Forest Ecology Slovak Academy of Sciences Akademická 2 94901 Nitra Slovak Republic

Department of Plant Protection Federal Research Centre the Subtropical Scientific Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yana Fabritsiusa Street 2 28 Sochi 354002 Krasnodar Region Russia

Faculty of Forestry Çankırı Karatekin University 18200 Çankırı Turkey

Forest Research Alice Holt Lodge Farnham Surrey GU10 4LH United Kingdom

Forest Research Institute Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 132 St Kliment Ohridski Blvd 1756 Sofia Bulgaria

Forest Science Institute Ctra Coruña km 7 5 28040 Madrid Spain

Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute University of Pretoria Pretoria 0002 South Africa

Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute 1 Matsunosato Tsukuba Ibaraki 305 8687 Japan

Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Urban Green Julius Kuehn Institute Braunschweig Germany

Institute of Botany Nature Research Centre Žaliųjų Ežerų St 47 Lt 08406 Vilnius Lithuania

Institute of Forestry and Engineering Estonian University of Life Sciences Tartu Estonia

Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária 1 P and GREEN IT Bioresources for Sustainability ITQB NOVA Avenida da República Quinta do Marquês 2780 157 Oeiras Portugal

Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria Centro de Investigación Forestal 28040 Madrid Spain

Laboratory and Research Division Plant Analytics Unit Finnish Food Authority Mustialankatu 3 00790 Helsinki Finland

Neiker BRTA Instituto Vasco de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario 01192 Arkaute Spain

Phytophthora Research Centre Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology Department of Forest Protection and Wildlife Management Mendel University in Brno Zemědělská 3 613 00 Brno Czech Republic

Scion Private Bag 3020 Rotorua 3046 New Zealand

Slovenian Forestry Institute Večna pot 2 SI 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

Swedish University of Agricultural Science Uppsala Sweden

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre Sundsvägen 3 230 503 Alnarp Sweden

Ukrainian Research Institute of Forestry and Forest Melioration Kharkiv Ukraine

University of Florence DAGRI Department of Agricultural Food Environmental and Forest Sciences and Technologies Piazzale delle Cascine 18 50144 Firenze Italy

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Can the Seed Trade Provide a Potential Pathway for the Global Distribution of Foliar Pathogens? An Investigation into the Use of Heat Treatments to Reduce Risk of Dothistroma septosporum Transmission via Seed Stock