The toxicity of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) present in the environment has exceeded the current limits or standards and thus may lead to biotic and abiotic catastrophes. Accordingly, several treatments, including chemical, biological, and physical approaches, are being used to reduce Cr(VI) waste in the surrounding environment. This study compares the Cr(VI) treatment approaches from several areas of science and their competence in Cr(VI) removal. As an effective combination of physical and chemical approaches, the coagulation-flocculation technique removes more than 98% of Cr(VI) in less than 30 min. Most membrane filtering approaches can remove up to 90% of Cr(VI). Biological approaches that involve the use of plants, fungi, and bacteria also successfully eliminate Cr(VI) but are difficult to scale up. Each of these approaches has its benefits and drawbacks, and their applicability is determined by the research aims. These approaches are also sustainable and environmentally benign, thus limiting their effects on the ecosystem.

Department of Chemical and Process Engineering Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 UKM Bangi Selangor Malaysia

Department of Chemical Engineering Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka P M B 5025 Nigeria

Laboratory of Algal Biotechnology Centre Algatech Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences Opatovický Mlýn 379 81 Třeboň Czech Republic

Research Centre for Sustainable Process Technology Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 UKM Bangi Selangor Malaysia

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