A biofilm constitutes a bacterial community encased in a sticky matrix of extracellular polymeric substances. These intricate microbial communities adhere to various host surfaces such as hard and soft tissues as well as indwelling medical devices. These microbial aggregates form a robust matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs), leading to the majority of human infections. Such infections tend to exhibit high resistance to treatment, often progressing into chronic states. The matrix of EPS protects bacteria from a hostile environment and prevents the penetration of antibacterial agents. Modern robots at nano, micro, and millimeter scales are highly attractive candidates for biomedical applications due to their diverse functionalities, such as navigating in confined spaces and targeted multitasking. In this tutorial review, we describe key milestones in the strategies developed for the removal and eradication of biofilms using robots of different sizes and shapes. It can be seen that robots at different scales are useful and effective tools for treating bacterial biofilms, thus preventing persistent infections, the loss of costly implanted medical devices, and additional costs associated with hospitalization and therapies.

Advanced Nanorobots and Multicale Robotics Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science VSB Technical University of Ostrava 17 listopadu 2172 15 Ostrava 70800 Czech Republic

Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Yonsei University 50 Yonsei ro Seodaemun gu Seoul 03722 Korea

Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering The Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong 999077 China

Department of Medical Research China Medical University Hospital China Medical University No 91 Hsueh Shih Road Taichung 40402 Taiwan

Department of Surgery The Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong 999077 China

Future Energy and Innovation Laboratory Central European Institute of Technology Brno University of Technology Purkyňova 656 123 Brno CZ 616 00 Czech Republic

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