Deficits in memory performance have been linked to a wide range of neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions. While many studies have assessed the memory impacts of individual conditions, this study considers a broader perspective by evaluating how memory recall is differentially associated with nine common neuropsychiatric conditions using data drawn from 55 international studies, aggregating 15,883 unique participants aged 15-90. The effects of dementia, mild cognitive impairment, Parkinson's disease, traumatic brain injury, stroke, depression, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder on immediate, short-, and long-delay verbal learning and memory (VLM) scores were estimated relative to matched healthy individuals. Random forest models identified age, years of education, and site as important VLM covariates. A Bayesian harmonization approach was used to isolate and remove site effects. Regression estimated the adjusted association of each clinical group with VLM scores. Memory deficits were strongly associated with dementia and schizophrenia (p < 0.001), while neither depression nor ADHD showed consistent associations with VLM scores (p > 0.05). Differences associated with clinical conditions were larger for longer delayed recall duration items. By comparing VLM across clinical conditions, this study provides a foundation for enhanced diagnostic precision and offers new insights into disease management of comorbid disorders.

3rd Faculty of Medicine Charles University 100 00 Prague Czech Republic

Ace Alzheimer Center Barcelona Universitat Internacional de Catalunya 08022 Barcelona Spain

Brain Imaging and Analysis Center Duke University Durham NC 27710 USA

Brain Research Institute University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles CA 90095 USA

British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services Research Institute Vancouver BC V5Z 1M9 Canada

Center for Autism Research Kessler Foundation East Hanover NJ 07936 USA

Center for Behavior Genetics of Aging University of California San Diego La Jolla CA 92093 USA

Center for Biobehavioral Health The Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital Columbus OH 43205 USA

Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics University of California San Diego La Jolla CA 92093 USA

Center for Traumatic Brain Injury Kessler Foundation East Hanover NJ 07936 USA

Center of Brain Behaviour and Metabolism University of Lübeck 23562 Lübeck Germany

Center of Excellence on Mood Disorders Louis A Faillace MD Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences McGovern Medical School The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston Houston TX 77030 USA

Centers for Neuropsychology Neuroscience and Traumatic Brain Injury Research Kessler Foundation East Hanover NJ 07936 USA

Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red Salud Mental 28029 Madrid Spain

Clinic of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Centre of Psychosocial Medicine University of Heidelberg 69120 Heidelberg Germany

Cognitive Health Initiative Central Clinical School Monash University Melbourne VIC 3800 Australia

Cognitive Health Initiative School of Translational Medicine Monash University Melbourne VIC 3800 Australia

Cognitive Neuroscience Unit School of Psychology Deakin University Burwood VIC 3125 Australia

Cognitive Neuroscience Unit School of Psychology Deakin University Geelong VIC 3220 Australia

Department of Biological and Medical Psychology University of Bergen 5007 Bergen Norway

Department of Biomedical Engineering Viterbi School of Engineering University of Southern California Los Angeles CA 90089 USA

Department of Biomedicine University of Bergen 5007 Bergen Norway

Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Seoul National University College of Natural Sciences Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Institute of Psychiatry and Mental Health Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón School of Medicine Universidad Complutense 28040 Madrid Spain

Department of Educational Psychology Counseling and Special Education Pennsylvania State University University Park PA 16802 USA

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Antalya Bilim University 07190 Antalya Turkey

Department of Life Sciences College of Health Medicine and Life Sciences Brunel University London Uxbridge UB8 3PH UK

Department of Medicine Royal Melbourne Hospital Melbourne VIC 3050 Australia

Department of Medicine University of Otago Christchurch 8011 New Zealand

Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy Wake Forest School of Medicine Winston Salem NC 27157 USA

Department of Neurology Alfred Health Melbourne VIC 3004 Australia

Department of Neurology Hershey Medical Center State College PA 16801 USA

Department of Neurology Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai New York NY 10029 USA

Department of Neurology Te Whatu Ora Health New Zealand Waitaha Canterbury Christchurch 8011 New Zealand

Department of Neurology Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences Bethesda MD 20814 USA

Department of Neurology University of Utah School of Medicine Salt Lake City UT 84132 USA

Department of Neuropsychiatry Seoul National University Hospital Seoul 03080 Republic of Korea

Department of Neuroscience Monash University Melbourne VIC 3800 Australia

Department of Neuroscience The School of Translational Medicine Alfred Health Monash University Melbourne VIC 3004 Australia

Department of Neuroscience Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences Bethesda MD 20814 USA

Department of Neurosurgery David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA Los Angeles CA 90095 USA

Department of Paediatrics The University of Melbourne Parkville VIC 3052 Australia

Department of Pediatrics Division of Neurology UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital Los Angeles CA 90095 USA

Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Rutgers New Jersey Medical School Newark NJ 07103 USA

Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation St Olavs Hospital Trondheim University Hospital 7006 Trondheim Norway

Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond VA 23298 USA

Department of Psychiatry 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University and General University Hospital 128 00 Prague Czech Republic

Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences University of Minnesota Medical School Minneapolis MN 55455 USA

Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles CA 90095 USA

Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University of Marburg 35032 Marburg Germany

Department of Psychiatry Dalhousie University Halifax NS B3H 4R2 Canada

Department of Psychiatry Marqués de Valdecilla University Hospital Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Valdecilla School of Medicine University of Cantabria 39008 Santander Spain

Department of Psychiatry Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy Frankfurt University 60590 Frankfurt Germany

Department of Psychiatry Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy University Hospital Frankfurt Goethe University 60590 Frankfurt Germany

Department of Psychiatry Seoul National University College of Medicine Seoul 03080 Republic of Korea

Department of Psychiatry University of Basel 4002 Basel Switzerland

Department of Psychiatry University of British Columbia Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4 Canada

Department of Psychiatry University of California San Diego La Jolla CA 92093 USA

Department of Psychiatry University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh PA 15213 USA

Department of Psychiatry Virgen del Rocio University Hospital School of Medicine University of Seville IBIS 41013 Seville Spain

Department of Psychology Georgia State University Atlanta GA 30303 USA

Department of Psychology Norwegian University of Science and Technology 7491 Trondheim Norway

Department of Psychology Penn State University State College PA 16801 USA

Department of Psychology Phoenix VA Health Care System Phoenix AZ 85012 USA

Department of Psychology University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles CA 90095 USA

Department of Psychology University of Oregon Eugene OR 97403 USA

Department of Psychology University of Oslo 0373 Oslo Norway

Department of Quantitative and Computational Biology Dornsife College of Arts and Sciences University of Southern California Los Angeles CA 90089 USA

Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences and Psychiatry University of California San Diego La Jolla CA 92093 USA

Department of Rehabilitation and Human Performance Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai New York NY 10029 USA

Department of Research Sunnaas Rehabilitation Hospital 1450 Nesodden Norway

Departments of Neurology Pediatrics Psychiatry Radiology Engineering and Ophthalmology University of Southern California Los Angeles CA 90089 USA

Division of Endocrinology Emory University School of Medicine Atlanta GA 30322 USA

Division of Epidemiology University of Utah Salt Lake City UT 84108 USA

Division of Psychiatry Haukeland University Hospital 5021 Bergen Norway

Eating Disorders Research and Treatment Center Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Faculty of Medicine Technische Universität Dresden 01307 Dresden Germany

Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center Leonard Davis School of Gerontology University of Southern California Los Angeles CA 90089 USA

Faculty of Computer Science Dalhousie University Halifax NS B3H 4R2 Canada

FIDMAG Research Foundation 08025 Barcelona Spain

George E Wahlen Veterans Affairs Medical Center Salt Lake City UT 84148 USA

H Ben Taub Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX 77030 USA

Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata 43007 Tarragona Spain

Imaging Genetics Center Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California Marina del Rey CA 90292 USA

Institut d'Investiació Sanitària Pere Virgili CERCA Universitat Rovira i Virgili 43007 Tarragona Spain

Institute D'Or for Research and Education São Paulo 04501 000 Brazil

Institute for Translational Neuroscience University of Münster 48149 Münster Germany

Institute for Translational Psychiatry University of Münster 48149 Münster Germany

Institute of Behavioral Science Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research Manhasset NY 11030 USA

Kessler Foundation East Hanover NJ 07936 USA

KG Jebsen Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders University of Oslo 0372 Oslo Norway

Laboratory of Neuropsychiatry Santa Lucia Foundation IRCCS 00179 Rome Italy

Michael E DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center Houston TX 77030 USA

Minneapolis VA Health Care System Minneapolis MN 55417 USA

National Institute of Mental Health 250 67 Klecany Czech Republic

National Intrepid Center of Excellence Walter Reed National Military Medical Center Bethesda MD 20814 USA

Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology Georgia State University Atlanta GA 30303 USA

Neurosurgery Stanford School of Medicine Stanford CA 94305 USA

New Zealand Brain Research Institute Christchurch 8011 New Zealand

NorHEAD Norwegian Centre for Headache Research 7491 Trondheim Norway

Norwegian Centre for Mental Disorders Research Division of Mental Health and Addiction Oslo University Hospital 0424 Oslo Norway

Psychiatry and Behavioral Health Ohio State Wexner Medical Center Columbus OH 43210 USA

Rehabilitation Medicine Department National Institutes of Health Clinical Center Bethesda MD 20892 USA

Richmond Veterans Affairs Medical Center Central Virginia VA Health Care System Richmond VA 23249 USA

Rocco Ortenzio Neuroimaging Center Kessler Foundation East Hanover NJ 07936 USA

School of Clinical Sciences Monash University Clayton VIC 3800 Australia

School of Psychology Speech and Hearing University of Canterbury Christchurch 8041 New Zealand

Section of Pediatrics The Ohio State University College of Medicine Columbus OH 43210 USA

Social Life and Engineering Science Imaging Center Penn State University State College PA 16801 USA

The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health Melbourne VIC 3052 Australia

Translational Developmental Neuroscience Section Division of Psychological and Social Medicine and Developmental Neurosciences Faculty of Medicine Technische Universität Dresden 01307 Dresden Germany

Translational Psychiatry Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University of Lübeck 23562 Lübeck Germany

Translational Research Centre University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University of Bern 3000 Bern Switzerland

Tri Institutional Center for Translational Research in Neuroimaging and Data Science Georgia State Georgia Tech Emory University Atlanta GA 30322 USA

UCLA Steve Tisch BrainSPORT Program University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles CA 90095 USA

University Hospital of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University of Bern 3000 Bern Switzerland

VA Mid Atlantic Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center Durham NC 27705 USA

VISN 6 MIRECC Durham VA Durham NC 27705 USA

WG Hefner VA Medical Center Salisbury NC 28144 USA

WRIISC WOMEN and Rehabilitation Department VA Palo Alto Palo Alto CA 94304 USA

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