BACKGROUND: Over the past 25 years, the development of multiuser applications has seen considerable advancements and challenges. The technological development in this field has emerged from simple chat rooms through videoconferencing tools to the creation of complex, interactive, and often multisensory virtual worlds. These multiuser technologies have gradually found their way into mental health care, where they are used in both dyadic counseling and group interventions. However, some limitations in hardware capabilities, user experience designs, and scalability may have hindered the effectiveness of these applications. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review aims at summarizing the progress made and the potential future directions in this field while evaluating various factors and perspectives relevant to remote multiuser interventions. METHODS: The systematic review was performed based on a Web of Science and PubMed database search covering articles in English, published from January 1999 to March 2024, related to multiuser mental health interventions. Several inclusion and exclusion criteria were determined before and during the records screening process, which was performed in several steps. RESULTS: We identified 49 records exploring multiuser applications in mental health care, ranging from text-based interventions to interventions set in fully immersive environments. The number of publications exploring this topic has been growing since 2015, with a large increase during the COVID-19 pandemic. Most digital interventions were delivered in the form of videoconferencing, with only a few implementing immersive environments. The studies used professional or peer-supported group interventions or a combination of both approaches. The research studies targeted diverse groups and topics, from nursing mothers to psychiatric disorders or various minority groups. Most group sessions occurred weekly, or in the case of the peer-support groups, often with a flexible schedule. CONCLUSIONS: We identified many benefits to multiuser digital interventions for mental health care. These approaches provide distributed, always available, and affordable peer support that can be used to deliver necessary help to people living outside of areas where in-person interventions are easily available. While immersive virtual environments have become a common tool in many areas of psychiatric care, such as exposure therapy, our results suggest that this technology in multiuser settings is still in its early stages. Most identified studies investigated mainstream technologies, such as videoconferencing or text-based support, substituting the immersive experience for convenience and ease of use. While many studies discuss useful features of virtual environments in group interventions, such as anonymity or stronger engagement with the group, we discuss persisting issues with these technologies, which currently prevent their full adoption.

3rd Faculty of Medicine Charles University Prague Czech Republic

Faculty of Humanities Charles University Prague Czech Republic

Research Center for Virtual Reality in Mental Health and Neuroscience National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Chan S, Li L, Torous J, Gratzer D, Yellowlees PM. Review and implementation of self-help and automated tools in mental health care. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2019 Dec;42(4):597–609. doi: 10.1016/j.psc.2019.07.001.S0193-953X(19)30070-X PubMed DOI

Pauley D, Cuijpers P, Papola D, Miguel C, Karyotaki E. Two decades of digital interventions for anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis of treatment effectiveness. Psychol Med. 2023 Jan 28;53(2):567–79. doi: 10.1017/S0033291721001999. S0033291721001999 PubMed DOI PMC

Malakouti SK, Rasouli N, Rezaeian M, Nojomi M, Ghanbari B, Shahraki Mohammadi A. Effectiveness of self-help mobile telephone applications (apps) for suicide prevention: a systematic review. Med J Islam Repub Iran. 2020;34:85. doi: 10.34171/mjiri.34.85. PubMed DOI PMC

Chan S, Li L, Torous J, Gratzer D, Yellowlees PM. Review of use of asynchronous technologies incorporated in mental health care. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2018 Aug 28;20(10):85. doi: 10.1007/s11920-018-0954-3.10.1007/s11920-018-0954-3 PubMed DOI

Tang Y, Gierc M, Lam RW, Liu S, Faulkner G. The effectiveness of internet-guided self-help interventions to promote physical activity among individuals with depression: systematic review. JMIR Ment Health. 2022 Dec 12;9(12):e38049. doi: 10.2196/38049. v9i12e38049 PubMed DOI PMC

Arif R, Ashraf S, Bhatt K, Shah K. A literature review examining virtual reality exposure therapy for individuals diagnosed with social anxiety disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2023;211(10):729–34. doi: 10.1097/nmd.0000000000001698. PubMed DOI

Norcross JC, Lambert MJ. Psychotherapy relationships that work III. Psychotherapy (Chic) 2018 Dec;55(4):303–15. doi: 10.1037/pst0000193.2018-51673-001 PubMed DOI

Rothke S. The role of interpersonal feedback in group psychotherapy. Int J Group Psychother. 1986 Apr 29;36(2):225–40. doi: 10.1080/00207284.1986.11491450. PubMed DOI

Galliers J, Wilson S, Marshall J, Talbot R, Devane N, Booth T, Woolf C, Greenwood H. Experiencing EVA park, a multi-user virtual world for people with aphasia. ACM Trans Access Comput. 2017 Oct 05;10(4):1–24. doi: 10.1145/3134227. DOI

Crowell C, Sayis B, Benitez JP, Pares N. Mixed reality, full-body interactive experience to encourage social initiation for autism: comparison with a control nondigital intervention. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2020 Jan 01;23(1):5–9. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2019.0115. PubMed DOI

Fortuna KL, Naslund JA, LaCroix JM, Bianco CL, Brooks JM, Zisman-Ilani Y, Muralidharan A, Deegan P. Digital peer support mental health interventions for people with a lived experience of a serious mental illness: systematic review. JMIR Ment Health. 2020 Apr 03;7(4):e16460. doi: 10.2196/16460. v7i4e16460 PubMed DOI PMC

Ali K, Farrer L, Gulliver A, Griffiths KM. Online peer-to-peer support for young people with mental health problems: a systematic review. JMIR Ment Health. 2015 May 19;2(2):e19. doi: 10.2196/mental.4418. v2i2e19 PubMed DOI PMC

Liblub S, Pringle K, McLaughlin K, Cummins A. Peer support and mobile health for perinatal mental health: a scoping review. Birth. 2024 Sep 24;51(3):484–96. doi: 10.1111/birt.12814. PubMed DOI

Repper J, Carter T. A review of the literature on peer support in mental health services. J Ment Health. 2011 Aug;20(4):392–411. doi: 10.3109/09638237.2011.583947. PubMed DOI

Longman H, O'Connor E, Obst P. The effect of social support derived from world of warcraft on negative psychological symptoms. Cyberpsychol Behav. 2009 Oct;12(5):563–6. doi: 10.1089/cpb.2009.0001. PubMed DOI

Ringland K. "Autsome": fostering an autistic identity in an online Minecraft community for youth with autism. Inf Contemp Soc (2019) 2019 Apr;11420:132–43. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-15742-5_12. PubMed DOI PMC

Wang M. Social VR: a new form of social communication in the future or a beautiful illusion? J Phys Conf Ser. 2020 Apr 01;1518(1):012032. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1518/1/012032. DOI

Kelley B. The rise of the ‘quarantine bar simulator’: the uses and gratifications of social VR during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Information and Computer Technologies; ICICT' 21; March 11-14, 2021; Hilo, HI. 2021. pp. 216–21. DOI

Deighan MT, Ayobi A, O'Kane A. Social virtual reality as a mental health tool: how people use VRChat to support social connectedness and wellbeing. Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems; CHI '23; April 23-28, 2023; Hamburg, Germany. 2023. pp. 1–13. DOI

Zamanifard S, Robb A. Social virtual reality is my therapist: overcoming social anxiety disorder through using social virtual reality. Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems; CHI EA '23; April 23-28, 2023; Hamburg, Germany. 2023. pp. 1–6. DOI

Robinson N, Mahapatra A, Jean-Baptiste B, Mallard A, Yang A, Hollon SD, Ezawa ID. Cognitive behavioral immersion for substance use disorders: a feasibility and pilot study of a peer-based coaching program in the metaverse. Games Health J. 2023 Oct 01;12(5):397–404. doi: 10.1089/g4h.2022.0214. PubMed DOI PMC

Horizon workrooms virtual office and meetings. Meta. [2024-07-30]. https://forwork.meta.com/horizon-workrooms/

Home page. Rec Room. [2024-07-30]. https://recroom.com/

Havu J, Glukhova P. Glue is a virtual collaboration platform for teams who need remote meetings to be as great as face-to-face meetings. Glue. [2024-07-30]. https://www.glue.work/

Clough BA, Casey LM. Technological adjuncts to enhance current psychotherapy practices: a review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2011 Apr;31(3):279–92. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.12.008. S0272-7358(11)00003-1 PubMed DOI

Imel ZE, Caperton DD, Tanana M, Atkins DC. Technology-enhanced human interaction in psychotherapy. J Couns Psychol. 2017 Jul;64(4):385–93. doi: 10.1037/cou0000213. 2017-12467-001 PubMed DOI PMC

Malhotra A, Baker J. Group therapy. StatPearls. 2022. [2024-04-29]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549812/ PubMed

Worrall H, Schweizer R, Marks E, Yuan L, Lloyd C, Ramjan R. The effectiveness of support groups: a literature review. Ment Health Soc Incl. 2018 Apr 09;22(2):85–93. doi: 10.1108/mhsi-12-2017-0055. DOI

Stein A. The nature and significance of interaction in group psychotherapy. Int J Group Psychother. 1970 Apr 29;20(2):153–62. doi: 10.1080/00207284.1970.11492071. PubMed DOI

Durkin HE. Toward a common basis for group dynamics. Int J Group Psychother. 2015 Oct 29;7(2):115–30. doi: 10.1080/00207284.1957.11508725. DOI

Guttmacher JA, Birk L. Group therapy: what specific therapeutic advantages? Compr Psychiatry. 1971 Nov;12(6):546–56. doi: 10.1016/0010-440x(71)90037-x.0010-440X(71)90037-X PubMed DOI

Weisberg RB, Beard C, Moitra E, Dyck I, Keller MB. Adequacy of treatment received by primary care patients with anxiety disorders. Depress Anxiety. 2014 May;31(5):443–50. doi: 10.1002/da.22209. PubMed DOI PMC

Marogna C, Caccamo F. Analysis of the process in brief psychotherapy group: the role of therapeutic factors. ResPsy. 2015 Mar 01;17(1):43–51. doi: 10.4081/ripppo.2014.161. DOI

Yalom ID, Leszcz M. Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy. 5th Edition. New York, NY: Basic Books; 2005.

Fuhriman A, Burlingame GM. Consistency of matter: a comparative analysis of individual and group process variables. Couns Psychol. 1990 Jan 01;18(1):6–63. doi: 10.1177/0011000090181002. DOI

Caccamo F, Ghedin S, Marogna C. Evaluation of burnout and alexithymia in a group of nurses in palliative care: a pilot study. G Ital Med Lav Ergon. 2017 Dec;39(4):249–55.28/2016 PubMed

Caccamo F, Saltini S, Carella E, Carlon R, Marogna C, Sava V. The measure of effectiveness of a short-term 2-week intensive cardiac rehabilitation program in decreasing levels of anxiety and depression. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. 2018 Jan 29;88(1):858. doi: 10.4081/monaldi.2018.858. PubMed DOI

Behenck A, Wesner AC, Finkler D, Heldt E. Contribution of group therapeutic factors to the outcome of cognitive-behavioral therapy for patients with panic disorder. Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2017 Apr;31(2):142–6. doi: 10.1016/j.apnu.2016.09.001.S0883-9417(16)30217-5 PubMed DOI

Choi YH, Park KH. Therapeutic factors of cognitive behavioral group treatment for social phobia. J Korean Med Sci. 2006 Apr;21(2):333–6. doi: 10.3346/jkms.2006.21.2.333. 200604333 PubMed DOI PMC

Taube-Schiff M, Suvak MK, Antony MM, Bieling PJ, McCabe RE. Group cohesion in cognitive-behavioral group therapy for social phobia. Behav Res Ther. 2007 Apr;45(4):687–98. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2006.06.004.S0005-7967(06)00136-7 PubMed DOI

Heckman TG, Heckman BD, Anderson T, Bianco JA, Sutton M, Lovejoy TI. Common factors and depressive symptom relief trajectories in group teletherapy for persons ageing with HIV. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2017 Jan 04;24(1):139–48. doi: 10.1002/cpp.1989. PubMed DOI

Brouzos A, Vassilopoulos SP, Stavrou V, Baourda VC, Tassi C, Brouzou KO. Therapeutic factors and member satisfaction in an online group intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Technol Behav Sci. 2021 Sep 26;6(4):609–19. doi: 10.1007/s41347-021-00216-4. 216 PubMed DOI PMC

Strauss B, Spangenberg L, Brähler E, Bormann B. Attitudes towards (psychotherapy) groups: results of a survey in a representative sample. Int J Group Psychother. 2015 Jul 24;65(3):410–30. doi: 10.1521/ijgp_2014_64_001. PubMed DOI

Shechtman Z, Kiezel A. Why do people prefer individual therapy over group therapy? Int J Group Psychother. 2016 Oct 07;66(4):571–91. doi: 10.1080/00207284.2016.1180042. PubMed DOI

Wolgensinger L. Cognitive behavioral group therapy for anxiety: recent developments. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2022 Apr 01;17(3):347–51. doi: 10.31887/dcns.2015.17.3/lwolgensinger. PubMed DOI PMC

Fisak Jr BJ, Richard D, Mann A. The prevention of child and adolescent anxiety: a meta-analytic review. Prev Sci. 2011 Sep;12(3):255–68. doi: 10.1007/s11121-011-0210-0. PubMed DOI

Barkowski S, Schwartze D, Strauss B, Burlingame GM, Rosendahl J. Efficacy of group psychotherapy for anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychother Res. 2020 Nov 24;30(8):965–82. doi: 10.1080/10503307.2020.1729440. PubMed DOI

Mayo-Wilson E, Dias S, Mavranezouli I, Kew K, Clark DM, Ades AE, Pilling S. Psychological and pharmacological interventions for social anxiety disorder in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014 Oct;1(5):368–76. doi: 10.1016/s2215-0366(14)70329-3. PubMed DOI PMC

Kodal A, Fjermestad K, Bjelland I, Gjestad R, Öst LG, Bjaastad JF, Haugland BS, Havik OE, Heiervang E, Wergeland GJ. Long-term effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for youth with anxiety disorders. J Anxiety Disord. 2018 Jan;53:58–67. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2017.11.003. S0887-6185(17)30428-0 PubMed DOI

Sigurvinsdóttir AL, Jensínudóttir KB, Baldvinsdóttir KD, Smárason O, Skarphedinsson G. Effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for child and adolescent anxiety disorders across different CBT modalities and comparisons: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nord J Psychiatry. 2020 Apr 18;74(3):168–80. doi: 10.1080/08039488.2019.1686653. PubMed DOI

Burlingame GM, Seebeck JD, Janis RA, Whitcomb KE, Barkowski S, Rosendahl J, Strauss B. Outcome differences between individual and group formats when identical and nonidentical treatments, patients, and doses are compared: a 25-year meta-analytic perspective. Psychotherapy (Chic) 2016 Dec;53(4):446–61. doi: 10.1037/pst0000090.2016-58498-004 PubMed DOI

Wersebe H, Sijbrandij M, Cuijpers P. Correction: psychological group-treatments of social anxiety disorder: a meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2013 Dec 6;8(12):12. doi: 10.1371/annotation/5f2f7ff4-ecfd-4a41-a162-34c1dd0c962a. PubMed DOI PMC

Naslund JA, Aschbrenner KA, Marsch LA, Bartels SJ. The future of mental health care: peer-to-peer support and social media. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2016 Apr;25(2):113–22. doi: 10.1017/S2045796015001067. S2045796015001067 PubMed DOI PMC

Marques IC, Ferreira JJ. Digital transformation in the area of health: systematic review of 45 years of evolution. Health Technol. 2019 Dec 13;10(3):575–86. doi: 10.1007/S12553-019-00402-8. DOI

Shalaby RA, Agyapong VI. Peer support in mental health: literature review. JMIR Ment Health. 2020 Jun 09;7(6):e15572. doi: 10.2196/15572. v7i6e15572 PubMed DOI PMC

Eysenbach G, Powell J, Englesakis M, Rizo C, Stern A. Health related virtual communities and electronic support groups: systematic review of the effects of online peer to peer interactions. BMJ. 2004 May 15;328(7449):1166. doi: 10.1136/bmj.328.7449.1166. 328/7449/1166 PubMed DOI PMC

Ridout B, Campbell A. The use of social networking sites in mental health interventions for young people: systematic review. J Med Internet Res. 2018 Dec 18;20(12):e12244. doi: 10.2196/12244. v20i12e12244 PubMed DOI PMC

Banbury A, Nancarrow S, Dart J, Gray L, Parkinson L. Telehealth interventions delivering home-based support group videoconferencing: systematic review. J Med Internet Res. 2018 Feb 02;20(2):e25. doi: 10.2196/jmir.8090. v20i2e25 PubMed DOI PMC

Dincelli E, Yayla A. Immersive virtual reality in the age of the Metaverse: a hybrid-narrative review based on the technology affordance perspective. J Strateg Inf Syst. 2022 Jun;31(2):101717. doi: 10.1016/j.jsis.2022.101717. DOI

Ghanbarzadeh R, Ghapanchi AH, Blumenstein M, Talaei-Khoei A. A decade of research on the use of three-dimensional virtual worlds in health care: a systematic literature review. J Med Internet Res. 2014 Feb 18;16(2):e47. doi: 10.2196/jmir.3097. v16i2e47 PubMed DOI PMC

Weinberg H. Obstacles, challenges, and benefits of online group psychotherapy. Am J Psychother. 2021 Jun 01;74(2):83–8. doi: 10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.20200034. PubMed DOI

Bell IH, Pot-Kolder R, Rizzo A, Rus-Calafell M, Cardi V, Cella M, Ward T, Riches S, Reinoso M, Thompson A, Alvarez-Jimenez M, Valmaggia L. Advances in the use of virtual reality to treat mental health conditions. Nat Rev Psychol. 2024 Jul 10;3(8):552–67. doi: 10.1038/s44159-024-00334-9. DOI

Pons P, Navas-Medrano S, Soler-Dominguez JL. Extended reality for mental health: current trends and future challenges. Front Comput Sci. 2022 Nov 18;4:1–13. doi: 10.3389/fcomp.2022.1034307. DOI

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, Shamseer L, Tetzlaff JM, Akl EA, Brennan SE, Chou R, Glanville J, Grimshaw JM, Hróbjartsson A, Lalu MM, Li T, Loder EW, Mayo-Wilson E, McDonald S, McGuinness LA, Stewart LA, Thomas J, Tricco AC, Welch VA, Whiting P, Moher D. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021 Mar 29;372:n71. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71. PubMed DOI PMC

Page MJ, Moher D, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, Shamseer L, Tetzlaff JM, Akl EA, Brennan SE, Chou R, Glanville J, Grimshaw JM, Hróbjartsson A, Lalu MM, Li T, Loder EW, Mayo-Wilson E, McDonald S, McGuinness LA, Stewart LA, Thomas J, Tricco AC, Welch VA, Whiting P, McKenzie JE. PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021 Mar 29;372:n160. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n160. PubMed DOI PMC

NocoDB Cloud. [2024-05-10]. https://nocodb.com .

Ronen K, Gewali A, Dachelet K, White E, Jean-Baptiste M, Evans YN, Unger JA, Tandon SD, Bhat A. Acceptability and utility of a digital group intervention to prevent perinatal depression in youths via interactive maternal group for information and emotional support (IMAGINE): pilot cohort study. JMIR Form Res. 2024 Feb 02;8:e51066. doi: 10.2196/51066. v8i1e51066 PubMed DOI PMC

Pokowitz EL, Prakash N, Planaj D, Oprandi S, Deldin PJ. Mood lifters for graduate students and young adults: a mixed-methods investigation into mechanisms of change in online group therapy. Behav Sci (Basel) 2024 Mar 20;14(3):252. doi: 10.3390/bs14030252. bs14030252 PubMed DOI PMC

Penwell TE, Smith M, Ortiz SN, Brooks G, Thompson-Brenner H. Traditional versus virtual partial hospital programme for eating disorders: feasibility and preliminary comparison of effects. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2024 Mar 07;32(2):163–78. doi: 10.1002/erv.3031. PubMed DOI

Conroy K, Kehrer SM, Georgiadis C, Hare M, Ringle VM, Shaw AM. Learning from adolescents and caregivers to enhance acceptability and engagement within virtual dialectical behavior therapy for adolescents skills groups: a qualitative study. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev (Forthcoming) 2024 Jan 06; doi: 10.1007/s10578-023-01641-7.10.1007/s10578-023-01641-7 PubMed DOI

Zimmerman M, D'Avanzato C, King BT. Telehealth treatment of patients with major depressive disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic: comparative safety, patient satisfaction, and effectiveness to prepandemic in-person treatment. J Affect Disord. 2023 Feb 15;323:624–30. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.015. S0165-0327(22)01375-1 PubMed DOI PMC

Xie EB, Freeman M, Penner-Goeke L, Reynolds K, Lebel C, Giesbrecht GF, Rioux C, MacKinnon A, Sauer-Zavala S, Roos LE, Tomfohr-Madsen L. Building Emotional Awareness and Mental Health (BEAM): an open-pilot and feasibility study of a digital mental health and parenting intervention for mothers of infants. Pilot Feasibility Stud. 2023 Feb 18;9(1):27. doi: 10.1186/s40814-023-01245-x. 10.1186/s40814-023-01245-x PubMed DOI PMC

Wright E, Martinovic J, de Camps Meschino D, Barker LC, Philipp DA, Israel A, Hussain-Shamsy N, Mukerji G, Wang V, Chatterjee A, Vigod SN. A virtual mother-infant postpartum psychotherapy group for mothers with a history of adverse childhood experiences: open-label feasibility study. BMC Psychiatry. 2023 Dec 18;23(1):950. doi: 10.1186/s12888-023-05444-x. 10.1186/s12888-023-05444-x PubMed DOI PMC

Wang C, Darbari I, Tolaymat M, Quezada S, Allen J, Cross RK. Randomized controlled pilot study of feasibility and effectiveness of peer led remote mindfulness‐based art workshops on stress, anxiety, and depression in medical students. Psychol Sch. 2022 Sep 30;60(6):1744–59. doi: 10.1002/pits.22809. DOI

Hunt X, Jivan DC, Naslund JA, Breet E, Bantjes J. South African university students' experiences of online group cognitive behavioural therapy: implications for delivering digital mental health interventions to young people. Glob Ment Health (Camb) 2023 Jul 28;10:e45. doi: 10.1017/gmh.2023.39. S2054425123000390 PubMed DOI PMC

Hollis C, Hall CL, Khan K, Le Novere M, Marston L, Jones R, Hunter R, Brown BJ, Sanderson C, Andrén P, Bennett SD, Chamberlain LR, Davies EB, Evans A, Kouzoupi N, McKenzie C, Heyman I, Kilgariff J, Glazebrook C, Mataix-Cols D, Serlachius E, Murray E, Murphy T. Online remote behavioural intervention for tics in 9- to 17-year-olds: the ORBIT RCT with embedded process and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2023 Oct;:1–120. doi: 10.3310/cpms3211. PubMed DOI PMC

Gerson J, Tawde P, Ghiasian G, Salwen-Deremer JK. Patients' experiences with virtual group gut-directed hypnotherapy: a qualitative study. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023 Feb 22;10:1066452. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1066452. PubMed DOI PMC

Finnerty R, McWeeny S, Trainor L. Online group music therapy: proactive management of undergraduate students' stress and anxiety. Front Psychiatry. 2023 Apr 21;14:1183311. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1183311. PubMed DOI PMC

Brownstone LM, Hunsicker MJ, Palazzolo LP, Dinneen JL, Kelly DA, Stennes J, Scanga S. “Sharing lived experience”: describing a virtual counselor-facilitated LGBTQ+ support group for disordered eating. Psychol Sex Orientat Gend Divers. 2023 Aug 10; doi: 10.1037/sgd0000660. DOI

Zaccari B, Loftis JM, Haywood T, Hubbard K, Clark J, Kelly UA. Synchronous telehealth yoga and cognitive processing group therapies for women veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: a multisite randomized controlled trial adapted for COVID-19. Telemed J E Health. 2022 Mar 29;28(11):1642–50. doi: 10.1089/tmj.2021.0612. PubMed DOI PMC

Mi RZ, Kornfield R, Shah DV, Maus A, Gustafson DH. Intraindividual, dyadic, and network communication in a digital health intervention: distinguishing message exposure from message production. Health Commun. 2022 Apr 25;37(4):397–408. doi: 10.1080/10410236.2020.1846273. PubMed DOI PMC

Mendelson D, Thibaudeau É, Sauvé G, Lavigne KM, Bowie CR, Menon M, Woodward TS, Lepage M, Raucher-Chéné D. Remote group therapies for cognitive health in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: feasible, acceptable, engaging. Schizophr Res Cogn. 2022 Jun;28:100230. doi: 10.1016/j.scog.2021.100230. S2215-0013(21)00037-8 PubMed DOI PMC

Kruzan KP, Whitlock J, Bazarova NN, Bhandari A, Chapman J. Use of a mobile peer support app among young people with nonsuicidal self-injury: small-scale randomized controlled trial. JMIR Form Res. 2022 Jan 10;6(1):e26526. doi: 10.2196/26526. v6i1e26526 PubMed DOI PMC

Fell L, Goshe B, Traeger L, Perez G, Iannuzzi D, Park E, Kuhlthau K, Luberto C. Acceptability of a virtual mind-body group intervention for teen siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2022 Dec 03;52(12):5243–52. doi: 10.1007/s10803-022-05500-7.10.1007/s10803-022-05500-7 PubMed DOI

El Ayadi AM, Duggal M, Bagga R, Singh P, Kumar V, Ahuja A, Kankaria A, Hosapatna Basavarajappa D, Kaur J, Sharma P, Gupta S, Pendse RS, Weil L, Swendeman D, Diamond-Smith NG. A mobile education and social support group intervention for improving postpartum health in northern India: development and usability study. JMIR Form Res. 2022 Jun 29;6(6):e34087. doi: 10.2196/34087. v6i6e34087 PubMed DOI PMC

Ali K, Fassnacht DB, Farrer LM, Rieger E, Moessner M, Bauer S, Griffiths KM. Recruitment, adherence and attrition challenges in internet-based indicated prevention programs for eating disorders: lessons learned from a randomised controlled trial of ProYouth OZ. J Eat Disord. 2022 Jan 04;10(1):1. doi: 10.1186/s40337-021-00520-7. 10.1186/s40337-021-00520-7 PubMed DOI PMC

Yeshua-Katz D. The role of communication affordances in post-traumatic stress disorder Facebook and WhatsApp support groups. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Apr 26;18(9):4576. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18094576. ijerph18094576 PubMed DOI PMC

Dabit S, Quraishi S, Jordan J, Biagianti B. Improving social functioning in people with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders via mobile experimental interventions: results from the CLIMB pilot trial. Schizophr Res Cogn. 2021 Dec;26:100211. doi: 10.1016/j.scog.2021.100211. S2215-0013(21)00018-4 PubMed DOI PMC

Craig SL, Leung VW, Pascoe R, Pang N, Iacono G, Austin A, Dillon F. AFFIRM online: utilising an affirmative cognitive-behavioural digital intervention to improve mental health, access, and engagement among LGBTQA+ youth and young adults. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Feb 05;18(4):1541. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18041541. ijerph18041541 PubMed DOI PMC

Craig SL, Iacono G, Pascoe R, Austin A. Adapting clinical skills to telehealth: applications of affirmative cognitive-behavioral therapy with LGBTQ+ youth. Clin Soc Work J. 2021 Mar 02;49(4):471–83. doi: 10.1007/s10615-021-00796-x. 796 PubMed DOI PMC

Abedishargh N, Ramezani Farani A, Gharraee B, Farahani H. Effectiveness of internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy in weight loss, stress, anxiety, and depression via virtual group therapy. Iran J Psychiatry Behav Sci. 2021 Sep 01;15(3):e113096. doi: 10.5812/ijpbs.113096. DOI

Tsai HH, Cheng CY, Shieh WY, Chang YC. Effects of a smartphone-based videoconferencing program for older nursing home residents on depression, loneliness, and quality of life: a quasi-experimental study. BMC Geriatr. 2020 Jan 28;20(1):27. doi: 10.1186/s12877-020-1426-2. 10.1186/s12877-020-1426-2 PubMed DOI PMC

Strand M, Eng LS, Gammon D. Combining online and offline peer support groups in community mental health care settings: a qualitative study of service users' experiences. Int J Ment Health Syst. 2020;14:39. doi: 10.1186/s13033-020-00370-x. 370 PubMed DOI PMC

Robinson-Whelen S, Hughes RB, Taylor HB, Markley R, Vega JC, Nosek TM, Nosek MA. Promoting psychological health in women with SCI: development of an online self-esteem intervention. Disabil Health J. 2020 Apr;13(2):100867. doi: 10.1016/j.dhjo.2019.100867.S1936-6574(19)30185-2 PubMed DOI

Vogel EA, Thrul J, Humfleet GL, Delucchi KL, Ramo DE. Smoking cessation intervention trial outcomes for sexual and gender minority young adults. Health Psychol. 2019 Jan;38(1):12–20. doi: 10.1037/hea0000698. 2018-59977-001 PubMed DOI PMC

Tait RJ, Paz Castro R, Kirkman JJ, Moore JC, Schaub MP. A digital intervention addressing alcohol use problems (the "Daybreak" program): quasi-experimental randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res. 2019 Sep 04;21(9):e14967. doi: 10.2196/14967. v21i9e14967 PubMed DOI PMC

Sawyer A, Kaim A, Le HN, McDonald D, Mittinty M, Lynch J, Sawyer M. The effectiveness of an app-based nurse-moderated program for new mothers with depression and parenting problems (eMums plus): pragmatic randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res. 2019 Jun 04;21(6):e13689. doi: 10.2196/13689. v21i6e13689 PubMed DOI PMC

Campbell A, Ridout B, Amon K, Navarro P, Collyer B, Dalgleish J. A customized social network platform (kids helpline circles) for delivering group counseling to young people experiencing family discord that impacts their well-being: exploratory study. J Med Internet Res. 2019 Dec 20;21(12):e16176. doi: 10.2196/16176. v21i12e16176 PubMed DOI PMC

Granado-Font E, Ferré-Grau C, Rey-Reñones C, Pons-Vigués M, Pujol Ribera E, Berenguera A, Barrera-Uriarte ML, Basora J, Valverde-Trillo A, Duch J, Flores-Mateo G. Coping strategies and social support in a mobile phone chat app designed to support smoking cessation: qualitative analysis. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. 2018 Dec 20;6(12):e11071. doi: 10.2196/11071. v6i12e11071 PubMed DOI PMC

Knowles LM, Stelzer EM, Jovel KS, O'Connor MF. A pilot study of virtual support for grief: feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary outcomes. Comput Human Behav. 2017 Aug;73:650–8. doi: 10.1016/J.CHB.2017.04.005. DOI

Carolan S, Harris PR, Greenwood K, Cavanagh K. Increasing engagement with an occupational digital stress management program through the use of an online facilitated discussion group: results of a pilot randomised controlled trial. Internet Interv. 2017 Dec;10:1–11. doi: 10.1016/j.invent.2017.08.001. S2214-7829(17)30033-7 PubMed DOI PMC

Nosek MA, Robinson-Whelen S, Hughes RB, Nosek TM. An internet-based virtual reality intervention for enhancing self-esteem in women with disabilities: results of a feasibility study. Rehabil Psychol. 2016 Nov;61(4):358–70. doi: 10.1037/rep0000107.2016-47726-001 PubMed DOI

Bohleber L, Crameri A, Eich-Stierli B, Telesko R, von WA. Can we foster a culture of peer support and promote mental health in adolescence using a web-based app? A control group study. JMIR Ment Health. 2016 Sep 23;3(3):e45. doi: 10.2196/mental.5597. v3i3e45 PubMed DOI PMC

Lemma A, Fonagy P. Feasibility study of a psychodynamic online group intervention for depression. Psychoanal Psychother. 2013 Jul;30(3):367–80. doi: 10.1037/a0033239. DOI

Schefft C, Krämer R, Haaf R, Jedeck D, Schumacher A, Köhler S. Evaluation of the internet-based intervention "Selfapy" in participants with unipolar depression and the impact on quality of life: a randomized, parallel group study. Qual Life Res. 2024 May 25;33(5):1275–86. doi: 10.1007/s11136-024-03606-2.10.1007/s11136-024-03606-2 PubMed DOI PMC

Yeo G, Loo G, Oon M, Pang R, Ho D. A digital peer support platform to translate online peer support for emerging adult mental well-being: randomized controlled trial. JMIR Ment Health. 2023 Apr 18;10:e43956. doi: 10.2196/43956. v10i1e43956 PubMed DOI PMC

Bozkurt MA, Cesur B. The effect of the application on the self-efficacy and anxiety levels of mothers: randomized controlled trial. Digit Health. 2023 Apr 25;9:20552076231169840. doi: 10.1177/20552076231169840. 10.1177_20552076231169840 PubMed DOI PMC

Arakawa Y, Haseda M, Inoue K, Nishioka D, Kino S, Nishi D, Hashimoto H, Kondo N. Effectiveness of mHealth consultation services for preventing postpartum depressive symptoms: a randomized clinical trial. BMC Med. 2023 Jun 26;21(1):221. doi: 10.1186/s12916-023-02918-3. 10.1186/s12916-023-02918-3 PubMed DOI PMC

Li C, Yip PY. Remote arts therapy in collaborative virtual environment: a pilot case study. Front Virtual Real. 2023 May 12;4:1–6. doi: 10.3389/frvir.2023.1059278. DOI

Shorey S, Chee CY, Ng ED, Lau Y, Dennis C, Chan YH. Evaluation of a technology-based peer-support intervention program for preventing postnatal depression (part 1): randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res. 2019 Aug 29;21(8):e12410. doi: 10.2196/12410. v21i8e12410 PubMed DOI PMC

Topooco N, Byléhn S, Dahlström Nysäter E, Holmlund J, Lindegaard J, Johansson S, Åberg L, Bergman Nordgren L, Zetterqvist M, Andersson G. Evaluating the efficacy of internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy blended with synchronous chat sessions to treat adolescent depression: randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res. 2019 Nov 01;21(11):e13393. doi: 10.2196/13393. v21i11e13393 PubMed DOI PMC

Shorey S, Ng ED. Evaluation of a technology-based peer-support intervention program for preventing postnatal depression (part 2): qualitative study. J Med Internet Res. 2019 Aug 29;21(8):e12915. doi: 10.2196/12915. v21i8e12915 PubMed DOI PMC

Depp CA, Mausbach B, Granholm E, Cardenas V, Ben-Zeev D, Patterson TL, Lebowitz BD, Jeste DV. Mobile interventions for severe mental illness: design and preliminary data from three approaches. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2010;198(10):715–21. doi: 10.1097/nmd.0b013e3181f49ea3. PubMed DOI PMC

Herrera F, Oh SY, Bailenson JN. Effect of behavioral realism on social interactions inside collaborative virtual environments. Presence. 2020;27:163–82. doi: 10.1162/pres_a_00324. DOI

Second Life. [2024-05-10]. http://secondlife.com/

Ezawa ID, Hollon SD, Robinson N. Examining predictors of depression and anxiety symptom change in cognitive behavioral immersion: observational study. JMIR Ment Health. 2023 Jul 14;10:e42377. doi: 10.2196/42377. v10i1e42377 PubMed DOI PMC

Yee N, Bailenson JN. The difference between being and seeing: the relative contribution of self-perception and priming to behavioral changes via digital self-representation. Media Psychology. 2009 May 19;12(2):195–209. doi: 10.1080/15213260902849943. DOI

Simón-Vicente L, Rodríguez-Cano S, Delgado-Benito V, Ausín-Villaverde V, Cubo Delgado E. Cybersickness. A systematic literature review of adverse effects related to virtual reality. Neurología. 2022 Jul; doi: 10.1016/j.nrl.2022.04.009. PubMed DOI

Lundin RM, Yeap Y, Menkes DB. Adverse effects of virtual and augmented reality interventions in psychiatry: systematic review. JMIR Ment Health. 2023 May 05;10:e43240. doi: 10.2196/43240. v10i1e43240 PubMed DOI PMC

Pot-Kolder R, Veling W, Counotte J, van der Gaag M. Anxiety partially mediates cybersickness symptoms in immersive virtual reality environments. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2018 Mar;21(3):187–93. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2017.0082. PubMed DOI

Bouchard S, Berthiaume M, Robillard G, Forget H, Daudelin-Peltier C, Renaud P, Blais C, Fiset D. Arguing in favor of revising the factor structure when assessing side effects induced by immersions in virtual reality. Front Psychiatry. 2021 Nov 5;12:739742. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.739742. PubMed DOI PMC

Navas-Medrano S, Soler-Dominguez JL, Pons P. Mixed Reality for a collective and adaptive mental health metaverse. Front Psychiatry. 2023 Jan 5;14:1272783. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1272783. PubMed DOI PMC

Possati LM. Psychoanalyzing artificial intelligence: the case of Replika. AI Soc. 2023;38(4):1725–38. doi: 10.1007/s00146-021-01379-7. DOI

Zhong W, Luo J, Zhang H. The therapeutic effectiveness of artificial intelligence-based chatbots in alleviation of depressive and anxiety symptoms in short-course treatments: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2024 Jul 01;356:459–69. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2024.04.057.S0165-0327(24)00661-X PubMed DOI

Boucher EM, Harake NR, Ward HE, Stoeckl SE, Vargas J, Minkel J, Parks AC, Zilca R. Artificially intelligent chatbots in digital mental health interventions: a review. Expert Rev Med Devices. 2021 Dec 31;18(sup1):37–49. doi: 10.1080/17434440.2021.2013200. PubMed DOI

Khawaja Z, Bélisle-Pipon JC. Your robot therapist is not your therapist: understanding the role of AI-powered mental health chatbots. Front Digit Health. 2023 Nov 8;5:1278186. doi: 10.3389/fdgth.2023.1278186. PubMed DOI PMC

Hejtmánek L. BrainVR/manuscript-multiuser-jimr: publication JIMR. Zenodo. [2024-04-29]. https://zenodo.org/records/13888256 .