Rachel Carson's warning of a silent spring directed attention to unwanted side effects of pesticide application. Though her work led to policies restricting insecticide use, various insecticides currently in use affect nontarget organisms and may contribute to population declines. The insecticide tebufenozide is used to control defoliating Lepidoptera in oak forests harboring rich insect faunas. Over 3 years, we tested the effect of its aerial application on bird populations with autonomous sound recorders in a large, replicated, full factorial field experiment during a spongy moth (Lymantria dispar) outbreak. The soundscape analysis combined automated aggregation of recordings into sound indices with species identification by experts. After pesticide application in the year of the outbreak, acoustic complexity in early summer was significantly reduced. The soundscape analysis showed that the reduction was not related to birds, but instead to the large reduction in caterpillar feeding and frass dropping. Effects on the vocal activity of birds were smaller than originally expected from a related study demonstrating tebufenozide's negative effect on bird breeding success. The legacy of the pesticide treatment, in terms of soundscape variation, was not present in the second year when the outbreak had ended. Our results showed a dimension of insecticide-induced acoustic variation not immediately accessible to the human ear. It also illustrated how a multifaceted soundscape analysis can be used as a generic approach to quantify the impact of anthropogenic stressors in novel ways by providing an example of remote and continuous sound monitoring not possible in conventional field surveys.

Respuesta inesperada del paisaje sonoro a la aplicación de insecticidas en robledales Resumen La advertencia de Rachel Carson (1962) sobre una primavera silenciosa dirigió la atención hacia los efectos secundarios no deseados de la aplicación de pesticidas. Aunque su trabajo dio lugar a políticas de restricción del uso de insecticidas, varios de los que se utilizan actualmente afectan a organismos no objetivo y pueden contribuir al declive de las poblaciones. El insecticida tebufenozida se utiliza para controlar lepidópteros defoliadores en robledales que albergan una rica fauna de insectos. Durante 3 años, comprobamos el efecto de su aplicación aérea sobre las poblaciones de aves con grabadoras de sonido autónomas en un gran experimento de campo factorial completo replicado durante un brote de polilla esponjosa (Lymantria dispar). El análisis del paisaje sonoro combinó la agregación automatizada de grabaciones a índices sonoros y la identificación de especies por expertos. Tras la aplicación de plaguicidas en el año del brote, la complejidad acústica a principios de verano se redujo significativamente. El análisis del paisaje sonoro demostró que la reducción no estaba relacionada con las aves, sino con la gran reducción de la alimentación de las orugas y la caída de excrementos. Los efectos sobre la actividad vocal de las aves fueron menores de lo que se esperaba en un estudio relacionado que demostraba el efecto negativo de la tebufenozida sobre el éxito reproductor de las aves. El legado del tratamiento con pesticidas, en términos de variación del paisaje sonoro, no estaba presente en el segundo año, cuando el brote había terminado. Nuestros resultados mostraron una dimensión de la variación acústica inducida por los insecticidas que no es inmediatamente accesible al oído humano. También ilustró cómo un análisis multifacético del paisaje sonoro puede utilizarse como enfoque genérico para cuantificar el impacto de los factores de estrés antropogénicos de forma novedosa, proporcionando un ejemplo de monitorización sonora remota y continua que no es posible en los estudios de campo convencionales.

Bureau for Ecological Studies C Strätz Bayreuth Germany

Centre of Biodiversity and Sustainable Land Use University of Göttingen Göttingen Germany

Chair of Forest Growth and Yield Science Department of Life Science Systems TUM School of Life Sciences Technical University of Munich Freising Germany

Department of Conservation and Research Bavarian Forest National Park Grafenau Germany

Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology and The Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies University of Wisconsin Madison Madison Wisconsin USA

Department of Geobotany Faculty of Biology University of Freiburg Freiburg Germany

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Prague Czech Republic

Field Station Fabrikschleichach Chair of Conservation Biology and Forest Ecology Biocenter University of Würzburg Rauhenebrach Germany

Hans Eisenmann Forum for Agricultural Sciences Technical University of Munich Freising Germany

Hessian Agency for Nature Conservation Environment and Geology Biodiversity Center Giessen Germany

Terrestrial Ecology Research Group Department of Life Science Systems TUM School of Life Sciences Technical University of Munich Freising Germany

USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station Morgantown West Virginia USA

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