Predicting whether a species is likely to go extinct (or not) is one of the fundamental objectives of conservation biology, and extinction risk classifications have become an essential tool for conservation policy, planning and research. This sort of prediction is feasible because the extinction processes follow a familiar pattern of population decline, range collapse and fragmentation, and, finally, extirpation of sub-populations through a combination of genetic, demographic and environmental stochasticity. Though less well understood and rarely quantified, the way in which science and society respond to population decline, extirpation and species extinction can also have a profound influence, either negative or positive, on whether a species goes extinct. For example, species that are highly sought after by collectors and hobbyists can become more desirable and valuable as they become rarer, leading to increased demand and greater incentives for illegal trade - known as the anthropogenic Allee effect. Conversely, species that are strongly linked to cultural identity are more likely to benefit from sustainable management, high public support for conservation actions and fund-raising, and, by extension, may be partially safeguarded from extinction. More generally, human responses to impending extinctions are extremely complex, are highly dependent on cultural and socioeconomic context, and have typically been far less studied than the ecological and genetic aspects of extinction. Here, we identify and discuss biocultural aspects of extinction and outline how recent advances in our ability to measure and monitor cultural trends with big data are, despite their intrinsic limitations and biases, providing new opportunities for incorporating biocultural factors into extinction risk assessment.

Biodiversity Unit University of Turku Turku Finland

Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences Institute of Hydrobiology České Budějovice Czech Republic

BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics Biodiversity and Land Planning CIBIO Vairão Portugal

CIBIO InBIO Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources University of Porto Vairão Portugal

Departament d'Antropologia Social i Cultural Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Cerdanyola del Vallès Spain

Ecologie Systématique Evolution Université Paris Saclay CNRS AgroParisTech Gif sur Yvette France

Helsinki Institute of Sustainability Science University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Helsinki Lab of Interdisciplinary Conservation Science Department of Geosciences and Geography University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats Barcelona Spain

Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Cerdanyola del Vallès Spain

Institute of Biological and Health Sciences Federal University of Alagoas Maceió Brazil

Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research Ben Gurion University of the Negev MidreshetBen Gurion Israel

School of Life Sciences University of KwaZulu Natal Durban South Africa

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Adamo M, Chialva M, Calevo J, Bertoni F, Dixon K and Mammola S (2021) Plant scientists’ research attention is skewed towards colourful, conspicuous and broadly distributed flowers. Nature Plants 7, 574–578. PubMed

Adamo M, Sousa R, Wipf S, Correia RA, Lumia A, Mucciarelli M and Mammola S (2022) Dimension and impact of biases in funding for species and habitat conservation. Biological Conservation 272, 109636.

Adams WM, Aveling R, Brockington D, Dickson B, Elliott J, Hutton J, et al. (2004) Biodiversity conservation and the eradication of poverty. Science 306, 1146–1149. PubMed

Balmford A, Gaston KJ, Blyth S, James A and Kapos V (2003) Global variation in terrestrial conservation costs, conservation benefits, and unmet conservation needs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100, 1046–1050. PubMed PMC

Bebber DP, Marriott FHC, Gaston KJ, Harris SA and Scotland RW (2007) Predicting unknown species numbers using discovery curves. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274, 1651–1658. PubMed PMC

Bellon AM (2019) Does animal charisma influence conservation funding for vertebrate species under the US endangered species act? Environmental Economics and Policy Studies 21, 399–411.

Bengtson S-A (1984) Breeding ecology and extinction of the great auk (Pinguinus impennis): Anecdotal evidence and conjectures. The Auk 101, 1–12.

Bennett EL, Milner-Gulland EJ, Bakarr M, Eves HE, Robinson JG and Wilkie DS (2002) Hunting the world’s wildlife to extinction. Oryx 36, 328–329.

Bennun L, Regan EC, Bird J, van Bochove J, Katariya V, Livingstone S, et al. (2018) The value of the IUCN red list for business decision‐making. Conservation Letters 11, e12353.

Berkes F, Colding J and Folke C (2000) Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management. Ecological Applications 10, 1251–1262.

Bolam FC, Mair L, Angelico M, Brooks TM, Burgman M, Hermes C, et al. (2021) How many bird and mammal extinctions has recent conservation action prevented? Conservation Letters 14, e12762.

Borgelt J, Dorber M, Høiberg MA and Verones F (2022) More than half of data deficient species predicted to be threatened by extinction. Communications Biology 5, 679. PubMed PMC

Branch TA, Lobo AS and Purcell SW (2013) Opportunistic exploitation: An overlooked pathway to extinction. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 28, 409–413. PubMed

Bridgewater P and Rotherham ID (2019) A critical perspective on the concept of biocultural diversity and its emerging role in nature and heritage conservation. People and Nature 1, 291–304.

Brockington D, Scholfield K and Ladle R (2018) Anthropology of conservation NGOs: Learning from a sectoral approach to the study of NGOs. In Larson PB and Brockington D (eds.), The Anthropology of Conservation NGOs. Cham: Palgrave, pp. 47–70.

Brondízio ES, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Bates P, Carino J, Fernández-Llamazares Á, Ferrari MF, et al. (2021) Locally based, regionally manifested, and globally relevant: Indigenous and local knowledge, values, and practices for nature. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 46, 481–509.

Brondizio ES and Le Tourneau F-M (2016) Environmental governance for all. Science 352, 1272–1273. PubMed

Büscher B and Fletcher R (2019) Towards convivial conservation. Conservation and Society 17, 283–296

Butchart SHM, Stattersfield AJ and Collar NJ (2006) How many bird extinctions have we prevented? Oryx 40, 266–278.

Cahill AE, Aiello-Lammens ME, Fisher-Reid MC, Hua X, Karanewsky CJ, Yeong Ryu H, et al. (2013) How does climate change cause extinction? Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 280, 20121890. PubMed PMC

Caro T (2007) Behavior and conservation: A bridge too far? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22, 394–400. PubMed

Caughley G (1994) Directions in conservation biology. Journal of Animal Ecology 63, 215–244.

Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Barnosky AD, García A, Pringle RM and Palmer TM (2015) Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction. Science Advances 1, e1400253. PubMed PMC

Ceballos G, García A and Ehrlich PR (2010) The sixth extinction crisis: Loss of animal populations and species. Journal of Cosmology 8, 1821–1831.

Chisholm RA, Giam X, Sadanandan KR, Fung T and Rheindt FE (2016) A robust nonparametric method for quantifying undetected extinctions. Conservation Biology 30, 610–617. PubMed

Clark JA and May RM (2002) Taxonomic bias in conservation research. Science 297, 191–192. PubMed

Clavero M and García-Berthou E (2005) Invasive species are a leading cause of animal extinctions. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20, 110. PubMed

Cooke SJ, Birnie-Gauvin K, Lennox RJ, Taylor JJ, Rytwinski T, Rummer JL, et al. (2017) How experimental biology and ecology can support evidence-based decision-making in conservation: Avoiding pitfalls and enabling application. Conservation Physiology 5, cox043. PubMed PMC

Correia RA, Ladle R, Jarić I, Malhado ACM, Mittermeier JC, Roll U, et al. (2021) Digital data sources and methods for conservation culturomics. Conservation Biology 35, 398–411. PubMed

Courchamp F, Angulo E, Rivalan P, Hall RJ, Signoret L, Bull L, et al. (2006) Rarity value and species extinction: The anthropogenic Allee effect. PLoS Biology 4, e415. PubMed PMC

Courchamp F, Jaric I, Albert C, Meinard Y, Ripple WJ, Chapron G (2018) The paradoxical extinction of the most charismatic animals. PLoS Biology 16, e2003997. PubMed PMC

Crane TA, Pronk M, Lakerveld R, Weiler V, Maat H, Springate-Baginski O, et al. (2016) Research design and the politics of abstraction: Unpacking the environmentality of scientific practice in socioecological assessments. Human Ecology 44, 665–675.

da Silva AF, Malhado ACM, Correia RA, Ladle RJ, Vital MVC, Mott T (2020) Taxonomic bias in amphibian research: Are researchers responding to conservation need? Journal for Nature Conservation 56, 125829.

Danielsen F, Enghoff M, Poulsen MK, Funder M, Jensen PM and Burgess ND (2021) The concept, practice, application, and results of locally based monitoring of the environment. Bioscience 71, 484–502. PubMed PMC

Davies T, Cowley A, Bennie J, Leyshon C, Inger R, Carter H, et al. (2018) Popular interest in vertebrates does not reflect extinction risk and is associated with bias in conservation investment. PLoS One 13, e0203694. PubMed PMC

De Vos JM, Joppa LN, Gittleman JL, Stephens PR and Pimm SL (2015) Estimating the normal background rate of species extinction. Conservation Biology 29, 452–462. PubMed

Di Minin E, Fink C, Hausmann A, Kremer J and Kulkarni R (2021) How to address data privacy concerns when using social media data in conservation science. Conservation Biology 35, 437–446. PubMed

Di Minin E, Laitila J, Montesino‐Pouzols F, Leader‐Williams N, Slotow R, Goodman PS, et al. (2015) Identification of policies for a sustainable legal trade in rhinoceros horn based on population projection and socioeconomic models. Conservation Biology 29, 545–555. PubMed PMC

Díaz S, Demissew S, Carabias J and Joly C (2015) The IPBES conceptual framework-connecting nature and people. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 14, 1–16.

Díaz S, Settele J, Brondízio ES, Ngo HT, Agard J, Arneth A, et al. (2019) Pervasive human-driven decline of life on earth points to the need for transformative change. Science 366, eaax3100. PubMed

Dobson A and Lyles A (2000) Black-footed ferret recovery. Science 288, 985–988. PubMed

dos Santos JW, Correia RA, Malhado ACM, Campos‐Silva JV, Teles D, Jepson P, et al. (2020) Drivers of taxonomic bias in conservation research: A global analysis of terrestrial mammals. Animal Conservation 23, 679–688.

Fa JE, Watson JEM, Leiper I, Potapov P, Evans TD, Burgess ND, et al. (2020) Importance of indigenous peoples’ lands for the conservation of intact Forest landscapes. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 18, 135–140.

Falk MT and Hagsten E (2022) Digital indicators of interest in natural world heritage sites. Journal of Environmental Management 324, 116250. PubMed

Fink C, Hausmann A, Di Minin E (2020) Online sentiment towards iconic species. Biological Conservation 241, 108289.

Fisher R, Radford BT, Knowlton N, Brainard RE, Michaelis FB and Caley MJ (2011) Global mismatch between research effort and conservation needs of tropical coral reefs. Conservation Letters 4, 64–72.

Flather CH, Hayward GD, Beissinger SR and Stephens PA (2011) Minimum viable populations: Is there a ‘magic number’ for conservation practitioners? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 26, 307–316. PubMed

Fleming PA and Bateman PW (2016) The good, the bad, and the ugly: Which Australian terrestrial mammal species attract most research? Mammal Review 46, 241–254.

Fu JS and Shumate M (2020) Developing and validating a capacity instrument for Chinese and US NGOs. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 49, 631–652.

García‐Robledo C, Kuprewicz EK, Baer CS, Clifton E, Hernández GG and Wagner DL (2020) The Erwin equation of biodiversity: From little steps to quantum leaps in the discovery of tropical insect diversity. Biotropica 52, 590–597.

Garibaldi A and Turner N (2004) Cultural keystone species: Implications for ecological conservation and restoration. Ecology and Society 9, 1.

Garnett ST, Burgess ND, Fa JE, Fernández-Llamazares Á, Molnár Z, Robinson CJ, et al. (2018) A spatial overview of the global importance of indigenous lands for conservation. Nature Sustainability 1, 369–374.

Garnett ST and Christidis L (2017) Taxonomy anarchy hampers conservation. Nature 546, 25–27. PubMed

Gault A, Meinard Y and Courchamp F (2008) Consumers’ taste for rarity drives sturgeons to extinction. Conservation Letters 1, 199–207.

Gavin MC, McCarter J, Mead A, Berkes F, Stepp JR, Peterson D, et al. (2015) Defining biocultural approaches to conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 30, 140–145. PubMed

Gonçalves SC, Haelewaters D, Furci G and Mueller GM (2021) Include all fungi in biodiversity goals. Science 373, 403. PubMed

Hall RJ, Milner‐Gulland EJ and Courchamp F (2008) Endangering the endangered: The effects of perceived rarity on species exploitation. Conservation Letters 1, 75–81.

Hoffmann M, Brooks TM, Da Fonseca GAB, Gascon C, Hawkins AFA, James RE, et al. (2008) Conservation planning and the IUCN red list. Endangered Species Research 6, 113–125.

Hoffmann M, Duckworth JW, Holmes K, Mallon DP, Rodrigues ASL and Stuart SN (2015) The difference conservation makes to extinction risk of the world’s ungulates. Conservation Biology 29, 1303–1313. PubMed

Hortal J, De Bello F, Diniz-Filho JAF, Lewinsohn TM, Lobo JM and Ladle RJ (2015) Seven shortfalls that beset large-scale knowledge of biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 46, 523–549.

Hughes AC, Qiao H and Orr MC (2021) Extinction targets are not SMART (specific, measurable, ambitious, realistic, and time bound). Bioscience 71, 115–118. PubMed PMC

Jarić I, Correia RA, Roberts DL, Gessner J, Meinard Y and Courchamp F (2019) On the overlap between scientific and societal taxonomic attentions — Insights for conservation. Science of the Total Environment 648, 772–778. PubMed

Jarić I, Normande IC, Arbieu U, Courchamp F, Crowley SL, Jeschke JM, et al. (2023) Flagship individuals in biodiversity conservation. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10.1002/fee.2598. DOI

Jarić I, Roll U, Bonaiuto M, Brook BW, Courchamp F, Firth JA, et al. (2022) Societal extinction of species. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 37, 411–419. PubMed

Jepson P, Barua M and Buckingham K (2011) What is a conservation actor? Conservation and Society 9, 229–235.

Johnson TF, Cornford R, Dove S, Freeman R and Millard J (2023) Achieving a real‐time online monitoring system for conservation culturomics. Conservation Biology 37, e14096. PubMed

Kim JY, Do Y, Im R-Y, Kim G-Y and Joo G-J (2014) Use of large web-based data to identify public interest and trends related to endangered species. Biodiversity and Conservation 23, 2961–2984.

Kunin WE, Harte J, He F, Hui C, Jobe RT, Ostling A, et al. (2018) Upscaling biodiversity: Estimating the species–area relationship from small samples. Ecological Monographs 88, 170–187.

Ladle RJ (2009) Forecasting extinctions: Uncertainties and limitations. Diversity 1, 133–150.

Ladle RJ, Correia RA, Do Y, Joo GJ, Malhado ACM, Proulx R, et al. (2016) Conservation culturomics. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 14, 269–275.

Ladle RJ and Jepson P (2008) Toward a biocultural theory of avoided extinction. Conservation Letters 1, 111–118.

Ladle RJ and Jepson P (2011) Origins, uses, and transformation of extinction rhetoric. Environment and Society 1, 96–115. 10.3167/ares.2010.010105 DOI

Ladle RJ, Jepson P, Correia RA and Malhado ACM (2019) A culturomics approach to quantifying the salience of species on the global internet. People and Nature 1, 524–532.

Lande R (1998) Anthropogenic, ecological and genetic factors in extinction and conservation. Population Ecology 40, 259–269.

Leclerc C, Bellard C, Luque GM and Courchamp F (2015) Overcoming extinction: Understanding processes of recovery of the Tibetan antelope. Ecosphere 6, 1–14.

Mace GM (2004) The role of taxonomy in species conservation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 359, 711–719. PubMed PMC

Malhado ACMM, Santos J, Correia RA, Campos-Silva J V., Teles D, Costa MH, et al. (2020) Monitoring and mapping non-governmental conservation action in Amazonia. Land Use Policy 94, 104556.

Mammola S, Riccardi N, Prié V, Correia R, Cardoso P, Lopes-Lima M, et al. (2020) Towards a taxonomically unbiased European Union biodiversity strategy for 2030. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 287, 20202166. PubMed PMC

Mateo-Martín J, Benítez J, García C, Gras A, Molina M, Reyes-García V, et al. (2023) Traditional management of culturally important wild medicinal plant species does not reduce their spatial distribution. In People and Nature, in press.

Maxwell SL, Fuller RA, Brooks TM and Watson JEM (2016) Biodiversity: The ravages of guns, nets and bulldozers. Nature 536, 143–145. PubMed

McBrien J (2016) Accumulating extinction. In Moore JW (ed.), Anthropocene or Capitalocene? Nature, History, and the Crisis of Capitalism Oakland, CA: PM Press, pp. 116–137.

McKee JK, Sciulli PW, Fooce CD and Waite TA (2004) Forecasting global biodiversity threats associated with human population growth. Biological Conservation 115, 161–164.

Meyer C, Kreft H, Guralnick R and Jetz W (2015) Global priorities for an effective information basis of biodiversity distributions. Nature Communications 6, 1–8. PubMed PMC

Millard JW, Gregory RD, Jones KE and Freeman R (2020) The species awareness index as a conservation culturomics metric for public biodiversity awareness. Conservation Biology 35, 472–482. PubMed

Mittermeier JC, Correia R, Grenyer R, Toivonen T and Roll U (2021) Using Wikipedia to measure public interest in biodiversity and conservation. Conservation Biology 35, 412–423. PubMed

Murray HJ, Green EJ, Williams DR, Burfield IJ and Brooke MdL (2015) Is research effort associated with the conservation status of European bird species? Endangered Species Research 27, 193–206.

Nicholls H (2012) The legacy of lonesome George. Nature 487, 279–281. PubMed

O’Bryan CJ, Garnett ST, Fa JE, Leiper I, Rehbein JA, Fernández‐Llamazares Á, et al. (2021) The importance of indigenous peoples’ lands for the conservation of terrestrial mammals. Conservation Biology 35, 1002–1008. PubMed PMC

Orton J (1869) The great auk. The American Naturalist 3, 539–542.

Palazy L, Bonenfant C, Gaillard JM and Courchamp F (2012a) Rarity, trophy hunting and ungulates. Animal Conservation 15, 4–11.

Palazy L, Bonenfant C, Gaillard JM and Courchamp F (2012b) On the use of the IUCN status for the management of trophy hunting. Wildlife Research 39, 711–720.

Pearce-Higgins JW, Brown DJ, Douglas DJT, Alves JA, Bellio M, Bocher P, et al. (2017) A global threats overview for Numeniini populations: Synthesising expert knowledge for a group of declining migratory birds. Bird Conservation International 27, 6–34.

Pimm SL, Jenkins CN, Abell R, Brooks TM, Gittleman JL, Joppa LN, et al. (2014) The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection. Science 344:, 1246752. PubMed

Powers RP and Jetz W (2019) Global habitat loss and extinction risk of terrestrial vertebrates under future land-use-change scenarios. Nature Climate Change 9, 323–329.

Reyes-García V, Cámara-Leret R, Halpern BS, O’Hara C, Renard D, Zafra-Calvo N, et al. (2023) Biocultural vulnerability exposes threats of culturally important species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 120, e2217303120. PubMed PMC

Reyes-García V, Fernández-Llamazares Á, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Benyei P, Bussmann RW, Diamond SK, et al. (2022) Recognizing indigenous peoples’ and local communities’ rights and agency in the post-2020 biodiversity agenda. Ambio 51, 84–92. PubMed PMC

Rodrigues ASL, Pilgrim JD, Lamoreux JF, Hoffmann M and Brooks TM (2006) The value of the IUCN red list for conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21, 71–76. PubMed

Sadovy Y and Cheung WL (2003) Near extinction of a highly fecund fish: The one that nearly got away. Fish and Fisheries 4, 86–99.

Samojlik T, Daszkiewicz P, Fedotova A, Ričkienė A, Cielemęcka O and Szczygielska M (2023) Evolution of European bison image and its implications for current species conservation. PLoS One 18, e0281113. PubMed PMC

Schipper J, Chanson JS, Chiozza F, Cox NA, Hoffmann M, Katariya V, et al. (2008) The status of the world’s land and marine mammals: Diversity, threat, and knowledge. Science 322, 225–230. PubMed

Siriwat P, Nekaris KAI and Nijman V (2019) The role of the anthropogenic Allee effect in the exotic pet trade on Facebook in Thailand. Journal for Nature Conservation 51, 125726.

Smith D, Abeli T, Bruns EB, Dalrymple SE, Foster J, Gilbert TC, et al. (2023) Extinct in the wild: The precarious state of Earth’s most threatened group of species. Science 379, eadd2889. PubMed

Solow AR (2005) Inferring extinction from a sighting record. Mathematical Biosciences 195, 47–55. PubMed

Soulé ME (1985) What is conservation biology? Bioscience 35, 727–734.

Spash CL and Smith T (2019) Of ecosystems and economies: Re-connecting economics with reality. Real-World Economics Review 87, 212–229.

Stropp J, Ladle RJ, Emilio T, Lessa T and Hortal J (2022) Taxonomic uncertainty and the challenge of estimating global species richness. Journal of Biogeography 49, 1654–1656.

Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, et al. (2004) Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427, 145–148. PubMed

Thomas‐Walters L and J Raihani N (2017) Supporting conservation: The roles of flagship species and identifiable victims. Conservation Letters 10, 581–587.

Titley MA, Snaddon JL and Turner EC (2017) Scientific research on animal biodiversity is systematically biased towards vertebrates and temperate regions. PLoS One 12, e0189577. PubMed PMC

Tournant P, Joseph L, Goka K and Courchamp F (2012) The rarity and overexploitation paradox: Stag beetle collections in Japan. Biodiversity and Conservation 21, 1425–1440.

Traill LW, Brook BW, Frankham RR and Bradshaw CJA (2010) Pragmatic population viability targets in a rapidly changing world. Biological Conservation 143, 28–34.

Troudet J, Grandcolas P, Blin A, Vignes-Lebbe R and Legendre F (2017) Taxonomic bias in biodiversity data and societal preferences. Scientific Reports 7, 9132. PubMed PMC

Troumbis AY, Iosifidis S (2020) A decade of Google trends-based conservation culturomics research: A critical evaluation of an evolving epistemology. Biological Conservation 248, 108647.

von Seth J, van der Valk T, Lord E, Sigeman H, Olsen RA, Knapp M, et al. (2022) Genomic trajectories of a near-extinction event in the Chatham Island black robin. BMC Genomics 23, 1–17. PubMed PMC

Waldron A, Mooers AO, Miller DC, Nibbelink N, Redding D, Kuhn TS, et al. (2013) Targeting global conservation funding to limit immediate biodiversity declines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, 12144–12148. PubMed PMC

Wilson EO (1992) The Diversity of Life. London: Penguin.

Yarwood MR, Weston MA and Symonds MRE (2019) Biological determinants of research effort on Australian birds: A comparative analysis. Emu-Austral Ornithology 119, 38–44.

Zachos FE (2016) Species Concepts in Biology. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.

Zanotti L and Knowles N (2020) Large intact forest landscapes and inclusive conservation: A political ecological perspective. Journal of Political Ecology 27, 539–557.

Ziembicki MR, Woinarski JCZ and Mackey B (2013) Evaluating the status of species using indigenous knowledge: Novel evidence for major native mammal declines in northern Australia. Biological Conservation 157, 78–92.