Background: Depression and anxiety are among the most common mental health issues of older populations, and as such they are frequently monitored covariates. The possibilities for collecting research data has grown with the recent emergence of user-friendly online survey platforms. However, to what extent the populations of older persons who participate in such research are similar to the general population remains unclear. We investigated the affective health of an open online sample of older adults (65+) in contrast to a representative randomised in-person interview sample. Methods: The surveys were conducted in 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Czech Republic after the second wave of anti-COVID-19 vaccination. The online sample (N = 389) was recruited via the Internet. Participants of the in-person study (N = 633) were randomly approached according to quotas for representativeness. The administered questionnaires included a health status self-report, the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) and the Geriatric Anxiety Inventory - Short form (GAI-SF). Results: Online participants reported better mental and general health; that is, they reported fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms than the randomised representative sample. In both samples, women showed higher levels of anxiety than men. Subjective general health was associated with mental health. In the randomised representative sample, in contrast to the online sample, the level of depression increased significantly with age. The open non-randomised calls for participants attracted a higher percentage of women and people with higher education than are in the general older population. Conclusions: Older research volunteers recruited online can be expected to be subjectively healthier and to differ largely from the general population in their sociodemographic characteristics.

Department of Psychology Faculty of Arts Charles University Prague Czech Republic

Prague College of Psychosocial Studies Prague Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Curran E., Rosato M., Ferry F., Leavey G. Prevalence and Factors Associated With Anxiety and Depression in Older Adults: Gender Differences in Psychosocial Indicators. Journal of Affective Disorders . 2020;267:114–122. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.02.018. PubMed DOI

Möller H.-J., Bandelow B., Volz H.-P., Barnikol U. B., Seifritz E., Kasper S. The Relevance of, Mixed Anxiety and Depression, as a Diagnostic Category in Clinical Practice. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience . 2016;266(8):725–736. doi: 10.1007/s00406-016-0684-7. PubMed DOI PMC

Ma L. Depression, Anxiety, and Apathy in Mild Cognitive Impairment: Current Perspectives. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience . 2020;12 doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.00009.9 PubMed DOI PMC

Riddle M., Potter G. G., McQuoid D. R., Steffens D. C., Beyer J. L., Taylor W. D. Longitudinal Cognitive Outcomes of Clinical Phenotypes of Late-Life Depression. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry . 2017;25(10):1123–1134. doi: 10.1016/j.jagp.2017.03.016. PubMed DOI PMC

Thomas A. J., O’Brien J. T. Depression and Cognition in Older Adults. Current Opinion in Psychiatry . 2008;21(1):8–13. doi: 10.1097/YCO.0b013e3282f2139b. PubMed DOI

van den Kommer T. N., Comijs H. C., Aartsen M. J., Huisman M., Deeg D. J. H., Beekman A. T. F. Depression and Cognition: How Do They Interrelate in Old Age? The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry . 2013;21(4):398–410. doi: 10.1016/j.jagp.2012.12.015. PubMed DOI

Wetherell J. L., Reynolds C. A., Gatz M., Pedersen N. L. Anxiety, Cognitive Performance, and Cognitive Decline in Normal Aging. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences . 2002;57(3):P246–P255. doi: 10.1093/geronb/57.3.P246. PubMed DOI

Faust K., Nelson B. D., Sarapas C., Pliskin N. H. Depression and Performance on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult . 2016;24(4):350–356. doi: 10.1080/23279095.2016.1185426. PubMed DOI

Nikolai T., Stepankova H., Kopecek M., Sulc Z., Vyhnalek M., Bezdicek O. The Uniform Data Set Czech Version―Normative Data in Older Adults From an International Perspective. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease . 2018;61(3):1233–1240. doi: 10.3233/JAD-170595. PubMed DOI PMC

Lin X., Haralambous B., Pachana N. A., et al. Screening for Depression and Anxiety Among Older Chinese Immigrants Living in Western Countries: The use of the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) and the Geriatric Anxiety Inventory (GAI) Asia-Pacific Psychiatry . 2016;8(1):32–43. doi: 10.1111/appy.12191. PubMed DOI

Zelinski E. M., Burnight K. P., Lane C. J. The Relationship Between Subjective and Objective Memory in the Oldest Old: Comparisons of Findings From a Representative and a Convenience Sample. Journal of Aging and Health . 2001;13(2):248–266. doi: 10.1177/089826430101300205. PubMed DOI

Hultsch D. F., MacDonald S. W. S., Hunter M. A., Maitland S. B., Dixon R. A. Sampling and Generalisability in Developmental Research: Comparison of Random and Convenience Samples of Older Adults. International Journal of Behavioral Development . 2002;26(4):345–359. doi: 10.1080/01650250143000247. DOI

Brodaty H., Mothakunnel A., de Vel-Palumbo M., et al. Influence of Population Versus Convenience Sampling on Sample Characteristics in Studies of Cognitive Aging. Annals of Epidemiology . 2014;24(1):63–71. doi: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2013.10.005. PubMed DOI

Tyrer S., Heyman B. Sampling in Epidemiological Research: Issues, Hazards and Pitfalls. BJPsych Bulletin . 2016;40(2):57–60. doi: 10.1192/pb.bp.114.050203. PubMed DOI PMC

Etikan I., Musa S. A., Alkassim R. S. Comparison of Convenience Sampling and Purposive Sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics . 2016;5(1) doi: 10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11.1 DOI

Jager J., Putnick D. L., Bornstein M. H. More than Just Convenient: The Scientific Merits of Homogeneous Convenience Samples: Developmental Methodology. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development . 2017;82(2):13–30. doi: 10.1111/mono.12296. PubMed DOI PMC

Andrade C. The Inconvenient Truth About Convenience and Purposive Samples. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine . 2021;43(1):86–88. doi: 10.1177/0253717620977000. PubMed DOI PMC

Ivnik R. J., Smith G. E., Tangalos E. G., Petersen R. C., Kokmen E., Kurland L. T. Wechsler Memory Scale: IQ-Dependent Norms for Persons Ages 65 to 97 Years. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology . 1991;3(2):156–161. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.3.2.156. DOI

Olaithe M., Weinborn M., Lowndes T., et al. Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS): Normative Data for Older Adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology . 2019;34(8):1356–1366. doi: 10.1093/arclin/acy102. PubMed DOI

Bužgová R. Paliativní péče ve zdravotnických zařízeních [Palliative care in healthcare facilities] Grada; 2015.

Gould C. E., Segal D. L., Yochim B. P., Pachana N. A., Byrne G. J., Beaudreau S. A. Measuring Anxiety in Late Life: A Psychometric Examination of the Geriatric Anxiety Inventory and Geriatric Anxiety Scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders . 2014;28(8):804–811. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.08.001. PubMed DOI

Cumming R. G. Is Probability Sampling Always Better? A Comparison of Results From a Quota and a Probability Sample Survey. Community Health Studies . 1990;14(2):132–137. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-6405.1990.tb00033.x. PubMed DOI

Deffner D., Rohrer J. M., McElreath R. A Causal Framework for Cross-Cultural Generalizability. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science . 2022;5(3) doi: 10.1177/25152459221106366. DOI

Chandler J., Shapiro D. Conducting Clinical Research Using Crowdsourced Convenience Samples. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology . 2016;12(1):53–81. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093623. PubMed DOI

Antoun C., Zhang C., Conrad F. G., Schober M. F. Comparisons of Online Recruitment Strategies for Convenience Samples: Craigslist, Google AdWords, Facebook, and Amazon Mechanical Turk. Field Methods . 2016;28(3):231–246. doi: 10.1177/1525822X15603149. DOI

Robb C. E., de Jager C. A., Ahmadi-Abhari S., et al. Associations of Social Isolation With Anxiety and Depression During the Early COVID-19 Pandemic: A Survey of Older Adults in London, UK. Frontiers in Psychiatry . 2020;11 doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.591120.591120 PubMed DOI PMC

Okun S., Ayalon L. The Paradox of Subjective Age: Age(ing) in the Self-Presentation of Older Adults. International Psychogeriatrics . 2023;35(10):566–575. doi: 10.1017/S1041610222000667. PubMed DOI

Goodarzi Z., Holroyd-Leduc J., Seitz D., et al. Efficacy of Virtual Interventions for Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Community-Dwelling Older Adults: A Systematic Review. International Psychogeriatrics . 2023;35(3):131–141. doi: 10.1017/S1041610222000412. PubMed DOI

Kelfve S., Kivi M., Johansson B., Lindwall M. Going Web or Staying Paper? The Use of Web-Surveys Among Older People. BMC Medical Research Methodology . 2020;20(1) doi: 10.1186/s12874-020-01138-0.252 PubMed DOI PMC

Klímová B., Poulová P., Šimonová I., Pražák P., Cierniak-Emerych A. Internet Use by the Older Adults in the Czech Republic. E+M Ekonomie a Management . 2018;21(3):220–232. doi: 10.15240/tul/001/2018-3-014. DOI

CZSO. Senioři v ČR v Datech - 2022 [Seniors in Czechia in Data - 2022] Czech Statistical Office . 2022 [Online]. Available: https://csu.gov.cz/docs/107508/5013f290-d45f-e0a8-7341-6979c9e2ed70/31003422.docx?version=1.0.

Čepelka O. Aktivity seniorů ve třetím věku [Activities of Older Adults in the 3rd Age]’. Stárnutí 2021: Sborník příspěvků 5. Gerontologické mezioborové konfe-rence [Ageing 2021: Proceedings of the 5th Gerontological Interdisciplinary Conference], Praha: Pražská vysoká škola psychosociálních studií; 2021; pp. 17–30. [Online]. Available: http://www.konferencestarnuti.cz/files/Starnuti_2018_sbornik.pdf.

Kamrádková K. Průzkum Práce Seniorů s Počítačem a Internetem [Survey of Seniors’ Use of Computers and the Internet] Knih. Plus . 2011;(2) [Online]. Available: https://oldknihovna.nkp.cz/knihovnaplus112/kamrad.htm.

Cantuaria M. L., Blanes-Vidal V. Self-Reported Data in Environmental Health Studies: Mail vs. Web-Based Surveys. BMC Medical Research Methodology . 2019;19(1) doi: 10.1186/s12874-019-0882-x.238 PubMed DOI PMC

Hagan T. L., Belcher S. M., Donovan H. S. Mind the Mode: Differences in Paper vs. Web-Based Survey Modes Among Women With Cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management . 2017;54(3):368–375. doi: 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2017.07.005. PubMed DOI PMC

Koivula A., Sivonen J. Different Sample Sources, Different Results? A Comparison of Online Panel and Mail Survey Respondents. In: Soares M. M., Rosenzweig E., Marcus A., editors. Design, User Experience, and Usability: UX Research, Design, and Assessment . Vol. 13321. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2022. pp. 220–233. (Lecture Notes in Computer Science).

WMA. World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. JAMA . 2013;310(20):2191–2194. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.281053. PubMed DOI

Hu T., Zhao X., Wu M., et al. Prevalence of Depression in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Psychiatry Research . 2022;311 doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114511.114511 PubMed DOI

CZSO. Demografická příručka - 2020 [Czech Demographic Handbook - 2020] Czech Statistical Office . 2021 [Online]. Available: https://www.czso.cz/csu/czso/demograficka-prirucka-2020.

Ware J. E., Kosinski M., Keller S. D. A 12-Item Short-Form Health Survey: Construction of Scales and Preliminary Tests of Reliability and Validity. Medical Care . 1996;34(3):220–233. doi: 10.1097/00005650-199603000-00003. PubMed DOI

Sheikh J. I., Yesavage J. A. 9/Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) Clinical Gerontologist . 2008;5(1-2):165–173. doi: 10.1300/J018v05n01_09. DOI

Wancata J., Alexandrowicz R., Marquart B., Weiss M., Friedrich F. The Criterion Validity of the Geriatric Depression Scale: A Systematic Review. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica . 2006;114(6):398–410. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00888.x. PubMed DOI

Byrne G. J., Pachana N. A. Development and Validation of a Short Form of the Geriatric Anxiety Inventory – the GAI-SF. International Psychogeriatrics . 2011;23(1):125–131. doi: 10.1017/S1041610210001237. PubMed DOI

Heissler R., Červenková M., Kopeček M., Georgi H. Geriatrická škála Deprese (GDS-15): Česká Normativní Studie [Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15): Czech Normative Study] Českoslov. Psychol . 2020;64(1):49–65.

Heissler R., Kopeček M., Pachana N. A., Franková V., Georgi H. Š. Inventář Geriatrické úzkosti (GAI) a Jeho Zkrácená Verze GAI-SF: Česká Normativní Studie [Geriatric Anxiety Inventory (GAI) and Its Short Form GAI-SF: Czech Normative Study] Českoslov. Psychol . 2018;62(5):462–476.

Shafiee A., Mohammadi I., Rajai S., Jafarabady K., Abdollahi A. Global Prevalence of Anxiety Symptoms and Its Associated Factors in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of General and Family Medicine . 2025;26(2):116–127. doi: 10.1002/jgf2.750. PubMed DOI PMC

Zenebe Y., Akele B., W/Selassie M., Necho M. Prevalence and Determinants of Depression among Old Age: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Annals of General Psychiatry . 2021;20(1) doi: 10.1186/s12991-021-00375-x.55 PubMed DOI PMC

Egbert A. R., Karpiak S., Havlik R., Cankurtaran S. Global Occurrence of Depressive Symptoms During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Psychosomatic Research . 2023;166 doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2022.111145.111145 PubMed DOI PMC

Halaschek-Wiener J., Tindale L. C., Collins J. A., et al. The Super-Seniors Study: Phenotypic Characterization of a Healthy 85+ Population. PLoS One . 2018;13(5) doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197578.e0197578 PubMed DOI PMC

Stepankova Georgi H., Horakova Vlckova K., Lukavsky J., Kopecek M., Bares M. Beck Depression Inventory-II: Self-Report or Interview-Based Administrations Show Different Results in Older Persons. International Psychogeriatrics . 2019;31(5):735–742. doi: 10.1017/S1041610218001187. PubMed DOI

Øverland S., Woicik W., Sikora L., et al. Seasonality and Symptoms of Depression: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences . 2020;29 doi: 10.1017/S2045796019000209.e31 PubMed DOI PMC

Höller Y., Gudjónsdottir B. E., Valgeirsdóttir S. K., Heimisson G. T. The Effect of Age and Chronotype on Seasonality, Sleep Problems, and Mood. Psychiatry Research . 2021;297 doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113722.113722 PubMed DOI

Schafer K. M., Lieberman A., Sever A. C., Joiner T. Prevalence Rates of Anxiety, Depressive, and Eating Pathology Symptoms Between the Pre- And Peri-COVID-19 Eras: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders . 2022;298(A):364–372. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2021.10.115. PubMed DOI PMC

Batterham P. J., Calear A. L., McCallum S. M., et al. Trajectories of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms During the COVID-19 Pandemic in a Representative Australian Adult Cohort. Medical Journal of Australia . 2021;214(10):462–468. doi: 10.5694/mja2.51043. PubMed DOI PMC

Clarijs M. E., Kregting L. M., van Ravesteyn N. T., Koppert L. B., Korfage I. J. Health-Related Quality of Life Using the EQ-5D-5L: Normative Utility Scores in a Dutch Female Population. Quality of Life Research . 2023;32(2):373–381. doi: 10.1007/s11136-022-03271-3. PubMed DOI PMC

Nolte M. T., Shauver M. J., Chung K. C. Analysis of Four Recruitment Methods for Obtaining Normative Data Through a Web-Based Questionnaire: A Pilot Study. HAND . 2015;10(3):529–534. doi: 10.1007/s11552-014-9730-y. PubMed DOI PMC

Wind T. R., Rijkeboer M., Andersson G., Riper H. The COVID-19 Pandemic: The, Black Swan, for Mental Health Care and a Turning Point for E-Health. Internet Interventions . 2020;20 doi: 10.1016/j.invent.2020.100317.100317 PubMed DOI PMC

Zhang L., Carter R. A., Qian X., Yang S., Rujimora J., Wen S. Academia’s Responses to Crisis: A Bibliometric Analysis of Literature on Online Learning in Higher Education During COVID-19. British Journal of Educational Technology . 2022;53(3):620–646. doi: 10.1111/bjet.13191. PubMed DOI PMC

Heiervang E., Goodman R. Advantages and Limitations of Web-Based Surveys: Evidence From a Child Mental Health Survey. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology . 2011;46(1):69–76. doi: 10.1007/s00127-009-0171-9. PubMed DOI