Antipredator defenses typically act at distinct stages of the predation sequence-encounter, identification, approach, and subjugation. However, their effectiveness has rarely been quantified and compared simultaneously in wild predator-prey systems. We conducted a study in Peru, where we installed aviaries at two localities and recorded the responses of wild avian predators to three types of antipredator defenses-crypsis, aposematism, and evasiveness-expressed by three butterfly prey types. The study included both immature and adult birds from forest and urban environments, representing the present community of insectivorous birds. We tested the theoretical expectations that cryptic butterflies (Nymphalidae: Euptychiina) were rarely detected, aposematic Heliconius (Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae) were often sighted but seldom attacked, and evasive Spicauda (Hesperiidae: Eudaminae) were frequently detected and attacked but evaded capture at higher rates. Despite these distinct defensive strategies, mortality rates among prey types were largely similar, but predator life stage strongly influenced defense effectiveness, with immature birds tending to attack Heliconius more frequently. Additionally, predator family influenced predation patterns, with more skilled insectivores (e.g., Vireonidae) showing higher capture success against defended prey. These findings illuminate the evolutionary pressures that shape predator behavior and prey defenses in tropical ecosystems. The similar mortality rates underscore the adaptive value of these defenses, which collectively distribute the total predation pressure across prey species.

Biology Centre CAS Institute of Entomology České Budějovice Czechia

Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology CNRS INSERM Collège de France PSL University Paris France

Department of Zoology Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia České Budějovice Czechia

Independent Researcher Lima Peru

Institut de Systématique Evolution Biodiversité Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle CNRS Sorbonne Université EPHE Université des Antilles Paris France

Instituto de Investigación Biológica de las Cordilleras Orientales Tarapoto Peru

Museum of Natural History and Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos Lima Peru

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Colón Panama

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Quantifying the success of prey crypsis, aposematism, and evasiveness in avoiding predator attack