Paradoxically, trichothecenes have both immunosuppressive and immunostimulatory effects. The underlying mechanisms have not been fully explored. Early studies show that dose, exposure timing, and the time at which immune function is assessed influence whether trichothecenes act in an immunosuppressive or immunostimulatory fashion. Recent studies suggest that the immunomodulatory function of trichothecenes is also actively shaped by competing cell-survival and death-signaling pathways. Autophagy may also promote trichothecene immunosuppression, although the mechanism may be complicated. Moreover, trichothecenes may generate an "immune evasion" milieu that allows pathogens to escape host and vaccine immune defenses. Some trichothecenes, especially macrocyclic trichothecenes, also potently kill cancer cells. T-2 toxin conjugated with anti-cancer monoclonal antibodies significantly suppresses the growth of thymoma EL-4 cells and colon cancer cells. The type B trichothecene diacetoxyscirpenol specifically inhibits the tumor-promoting factor HIF-1 in cancer cells under hypoxic conditions. Trichothecin markedly inhibits the growth of multiple cancer cells with constitutively activated NF-κB. The type D macrocyclic toxin Verrucarin A is also a promising therapeutic candidate for leukemia, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and pancreatic cancer. The anti-cancer activities of trichothecenes have not been comprehensively summarized. Here, we first summarize the data on the immunomodulatory effects of trichothecenes and discuss recent studies that shed light on the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms. These mechanisms include autophagy and major signaling pathways and their crosstalk. Second, the anti-cancer potential of trichothecenes and the underlying mechanisms will be discussed. We hope that this review will show how trichothecene bioactivities can be exploited to generate therapies against pathogens and cancer.

• Klíčová slova
• Anti-cancer, Autophagy, Deoxynivalenol, Immune evasion, Immunomodulation, Signaling pathway, T-2 toxin,
• MeSH
• antikarcinogenní látky farmakologie   MeSH
• autofagie účinky léků   imunologie   MeSH
• imunoglobulin A imunologie   MeSH
• imunologické faktory farmakologie   MeSH
• imunosupresiva farmakologie   MeSH
• infekce farmakoterapie   imunologie   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• signální transdukce účinky léků   imunologie   MeSH
• trichotheceny chemie   farmakologie   MeSH
• vztahy mezi strukturou a aktivitou MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• přehledy MeSH
• Názvy látek
• antikarcinogenní látky MeSH
• imunoglobulin A MeSH
• imunologické faktory MeSH
• imunosupresiva MeSH
• trichotheceny MeSH

Spirulina is a species of filamentous cyanobacteria that has long been used as a food supplement. In particular, Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima are the most important. Thanks to a high protein and vitamin content, Spirulina is used as a nutraceutical food supplement, although its other potential health benefits have attracted much attention. Oxidative stress and dysfunctional immunity cause many diseases in humans, including atherosclerosis, cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure, and hypertension. Thus, the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of these microalgae may play an important role in human health. Here, we discuss the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of Spirulina in both animals and humans, along with the underlying mechanisms. In addition, its commercial and regulatory status in different countries is discussed as well. Spirulina activates cellular antioxidant enzymes, inhibits lipid peroxidation and DNA damage, scavenges free radicals, and increases the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase. Notably, there appears to be a threshold level above which Spirulina will taper off the antioxidant activity. Clinical trials show that Spirulina prevents skeletal muscle damage under conditions of exercise-induced oxidative stress and can stimulate the production of antibodies and up- or downregulate the expression of cytokine-encoding genes to induce immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory responses. The molecular mechanism(s) by which Spirulina induces these activities is unclear, but phycocyanin and β-carotene are important molecules. Moreover, Spirulina effectively regulates the ERK1/2, JNK, p38, and IκB pathways. This review provides new insight into the potential therapeutic applications of Spirulina and may provide new ideas for future studies.

• Klíčová slova
• Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant, Immunomodulation, Mechanism of action, Phycocyanin, Spirulina,
• MeSH
• antiflogistika izolace a purifikace   farmakologie   terapeutické užití   MeSH
• antioxidancia izolace a purifikace   farmakologie   terapeutické užití   MeSH
• imunologické faktory izolace a purifikace   farmakologie   terapeutické užití   MeSH
• klinické zkoušky jako téma MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• oxidační stres účinky léků   MeSH
• peroxidace lipidů účinky léků   MeSH
• potravní doplňky MeSH
• Spirulina chemie   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• přehledy MeSH
• Názvy látek
• antiflogistika MeSH
• antioxidancia MeSH
• imunologické faktory MeSH