Changes in land-use and climate affect the distribution and diversity of plant and animal species at different spatiotemporal scales. The extent to which species-specific phenotypic plasticity and biotic interactions mediate organismal adaptation to changing environments, however, remains poorly understood. Woody plant expansion is threatening the extent of alpine grasslands worldwide, and evaluating and predicting its effects on herbivores is of crucial importance. Here, we explore the impact of shrubification on the feeding efficiency of Pyrenean chamois (Rupicapra p. pyrenaica), as well as on the three most abundant coexisting domestic ungulate species: cattle, sheep and horses. We use observational diet composition from May to October and model different scenarios of vegetation availability where shrubland and woodland proliferate at the expense of grassland. We then predicted if the four ungulate species could efficiently utilize their food landscapes with their current dietary specificities measuring their niche breath in each scenario. We observed that the wild counterpart, due to a higher trophic plasticity, is less disturbed by shrubification compared to livestock, which rely primarily on herbaceous plants and will be affected 3.6 times more. Our results suggest that mixed feeders, such as chamois, could benefit from fallow landscapes, and that mountain farmers are at a growing economic risk worldwide due to changing land-use practices and climate conditions.

Centre de Recerca Ecològica i Aplicacions Forestals Cerdanyola del Vallès Spain CSIC Global Ecology Unit CREAF CSIC Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra Spain

Centre for Biodiversity Theory and Modelling Theoretical and Experimental Ecology Station CNRS Paul Sabatier University Moulis France

CREAF Centre de Recerca Ecològica i Aplicacions Forestals Edifici Ciències Bellaterra Catalunya Spain Unitat d'Ecologia Departament de Biologia Animal Biologia Vegetal i Ecologia Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Edifici Ciències Bellaterra Catalunya Spain

Department of Geography University of Cambridge Cambridge UK Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL Birmensdorf Switzerland Global Change Research Centre Brno Czech Republic Department of Geography Faculty of Science Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic

Grup de Recerca en Remugants Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments Facultat de Veterinària Universitat Autònoma de Barcelon Barcelona Spain

Unitat de botánica Departament de Biologia Animal Biologia Vegetal i Ecologia Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra Spain Centre de Recerca Ecològica i Aplicacions Forestals Cerdanyola del Vallès Spain

Wildlife Ecology and Health Group Departament de Medicina i Cirurgia Animals Facultat de Veterinària Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Barcelona Spain

Wildlife Ecology and Health Group Departament de Medicina i Cirurgia Animals Facultat de Veterinària Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Barcelona Spain Facultad de ciencias pecuarias Universidad de Nariño Pasto Colombia

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