This study deals with the effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) on halophyte from the genus Salicornia. The presence of ZnO nanoparticles (100 and 1000 mg/L) in the solid culture medium resulted in the negative effects on plant growth in the concentration-dependent manner. The shoot length of plant cultivated with 1000 mg/L ZnO NPs decreased by more than 50% compared to non-treated plants. The phytotoxicity was associated with the release of free zinc(II) ions, which was determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy and fluorescence microscopy. Another mechanism involved in ZnO NPs phytotoxicity was closely connected with generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which was accompanied by changes in activities and amounts of antioxidant enzymes. Histochemical evaluation showed that ROS were present also in the shoot of plant, which was not in direct contact with NPs. The reduction of activity and amount of antioxidant enzymes such as gamma-ESC, GR, SOD, PER, APX and higher concentration of ROS lead to lipid peroxidation, the latter being almost 3 times higher for the plant treated with 1000 mg/L NPs compared to control. The misbalance in zinc homeostasis and creation of ROS with subsequent oxidative stress led to the initiation of processes of programmed cell death, which was demonstrated by the loss of mitochondrial potential and increase of intracellular calcium (II) ions. Despite halophytes exhibit higher stress resistance than glycophytes, they are prone to negative changes if incubated in the environment containing ZnO nanoparticles.

Department of Mechanochemistry Institute of Geotechnics Slovak Academy of Sciences Watsonova 45 040 01 Košice Slovakia

Department of Natural Drugs Faculty of Pharmacy University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno Palackého 1 3 CZ 61242 Brno Czech Republic

Department of Natural Drugs Faculty of Pharmacy University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno Palackého 1 3 CZ 61242 Brno Czech Republic; Department of Physiology Faculty of Medicine Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic CZ 625 00 Czech Republic

Department of Pharmacognosy and Botany University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice Komenského 73 041 81 Košice Slovakia; Department of Natural Drugs Faculty of Pharmacy University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno Palackého 1 3 CZ 61242 Brno Czech Republic

Plant Stress Laboratory French Associates Institute for Agriculture and Biotechnology of Drylands Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research Ben Gurion University of the Negev Sede Boqer Campus 84990 Israel

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