Nanoparticles (NPs) are currently used in diagnosis and treatment of many human diseases, including autoimmune diseases and cancer. However, cytotoxic effects of NPs on normal cells and living organs is a severe limiting factor that hinders their use in clinic. In addition, diversity of NPs and their physico-chemical properties, including particle size, shape, surface area, dispersity and protein corona effects are considered as key factors that have a crucial impact on their safe or toxicological behaviors. Current studies on toxic effects of NPs are aimed to identify the targets and mechanisms of their side effects, with a focus on elucidating the patterns of NP transport, accumulation, degradation, and elimination, in both in vitro and in vitro models. NPs can enter the body through inhalation, skin and digestive routes. Consequently, there is a need for reliable information about effects of NPs on various organs in order to reveal their efficacy and impact on health. This review covers the existing knowledge base on the subject that hopefully prepares us better to address these challenges.

Cancer Biology Research Center Cancer Institute of Iran Tehran University of Medical Sciences Tehran P O Box 13145 158 Iran

Cellular and Molecular Research Center Iran University of Medical Sciences Tehran P O Box 1449614525 Iran

Department of Midwifery and Reproductive Health Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery Abadan School of Medical Sciences Abadan P O Box 517 Iran

Department of Molecular Medicine National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Tehran P O Box 14965 161 Iran

Department of Nanotechnology Faculty of Advance Science and Technology Pharmaceutical Sciences Branches Islamic Azad University of Tehran Tehran P O Box 1916893813 Iran

Neuroscience Research Center Institute of Neuropharmacology and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology School of Pharmacy Kerman University of Medical Sciences Kerman P O Box 7616911319 Iran

Pharmaceutics Research Center Institute of Neuropharmacology Kerman University of Medical Sciences Kerman P O Box 1355576169 Iran

Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials Faculty of Science Palacky University in Olomouc Šlechtitelů 27 783 71 Olomouc Czech Republic

School of Medicine International Branch Shiraz University of Medical Sciences Shiraz 7134845794 Iran

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