Dirofilaria repens is a nematode affecting domestic and wild canids, transmitted by several species of mosquitoes. It usually causes a non-pathogenic subcutaneous infection in dogs and is the principal agent of human dirofilariosis in the Old World. In the last decades, D. repens has increased in prevalence in areas where it has already been reported and its distribution range has expanded into new areas of Europe, representing a paradigmatic example of an emergent pathogen. Despite its emergence and zoonotic impact, D. repens has received less attention by scientists compared to Dirofilaria immitis. In this review we report the recent advances of D. repens infection in dogs and humans, and transmission by vectors, and discuss possible factors that influence the spread and increase of this zoonotic parasite in Europe. There is evidence that D. repens has spread faster than D. immitis from the endemic areas of southern Europe to northern Europe. Climate change affecting mosquito vectors and the facilitation of pet travel seem to have contributed to this expansion; however, in the authors' opinion, the major factor is likely the rate of undiagnosed dogs continuing to perpetuate the life-cycle of D. repens. Many infected dogs remain undetected due to the subclinical nature of the disease, the lack of rapid and reliable diagnostic tools and the poor knowledge and still low awareness of D. repens in non-endemic areas. Improved diagnostic tools are warranted to bring D. repens diagnosis to the state of D. immitis diagnosis, as well as improved screening of imported dogs and promotion of preventative measures among veterinarians and dog owners. For vector-borne diseases involving pets, veterinarians play a significant role in prevention and should be more aware of their responsibility in reducing the impact of the zoonotic agents. In addition, they should enhance multisectorial collaboration with medical entomologists and the public health experts, under the concept and the actions of One Health-One Medicine.

Biology Centre Institute of Parasitology Czech Academy of Sciences České Budějovice Czech Republic

Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj Napoca Cluj Napoca Romania

Department of Pathology and Parasitology University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno Czech Republic

Department of Veterinary Medicine Università degli Studi di Milano Milan Italy

Department of Veterinary Medicine University of Bari Valenzano Italy

Department of Veterinary Science Università degli Studi di Messina Messina Italy

Department of Veterinary Sciences School of Agrarian and Veterinary Sciences University of Trás os Montes e Alto Douro Vila Real Portugal

Global Health and Tropical Medicine Lisboa Portugal

Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine Freie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany

Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health Veterinary Faculty University of Leipzig Leipzig Germany

Institute of Infectology Friedrich Loeffler Institute Isle of Riems Greifswald Germany

Institute of Parasitology University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna Austria

Koret School of Veterinary Medicine The Hebrew University Rehovot Israel

Laboratory for medical and veterinary entomology Faculty of Agriculture University of Novi Sad Novi Sad Serbia

Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases Faculty of Veterinary Sciences Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Thessaloniki Greece

Laboratory of Parasitology National reference centre OIE collaborating centre for diseases at the animal human interface Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie Legnaro Italy

National Centre of Vector Entomology University of Zurich Zurich Switzerland

Scientific Veterinary Institute Novi Sad Novi Sad Serbia

Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute Basel Switzerland

University Basel Basel Switzerland

Veterinary School of Nantes ONIRIS University of Nantes LUNAM Nantes France

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Further data on the distribution of Dirofilaria spp. in the Czech Republic in dogs

Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: Current Risk of Spreading in Central and Northern Europe

The first case of periorbital human dirofilariasis in the Czech Republic