The South American arowanas (Osteoglossiformes, Osteoglossidae, Osteoglossum) are emblematic species widely distributed in the Amazon and surrounding basins. Arowana species are under strong anthropogenic pressure as they are extensively exploited for ornamental and food purposes. Until now, limited genetic and cytogenetic information has been available, with only a few studies reporting to their genetic diversity and population structure. In the present study, cytogenetic and DArTseq-derived single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data were used to investigate the genetic diversity of the two Osteoglossum species, the silver arowana O. bicirrhosum, and the black arowana O. ferreirai. Both species differ in their 2n (with 2n = 54 and 56 for O. ferreirai and O. bicirrhosum, respectively) and in the composition and distribution of their repetitive DNA content, consistent with their taxonomic status as different species. Our genetic dataset was coupled with contemporary and paleogeographic niche modeling, to develop concurrent demographic models that were tested against each other with a deep learning approach in O. bicirrhosum. Our genetic results reveal that O. bicirrhosum colonized the Tocantins-Araguaia basin from the Amazon basin about one million years ago. In addition, we highlighted a higher genetic diversity of O. bicirrhosum in the Amazon populations in comparison to those from the Tocantins-Araguaia basin.

Departamento de Genética e Evolução Universidade Federal de São Carlos Rodovia Washington Luiz Km 235 C P 676 São Carlos SP 13565 905 Brazil

Institute for Applied Ecology University of Canberra Canberra ACT 2617 Australia

Institute of Human Genetics University Hospital Jena 07740 Jena Germany

Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia Coordenação de Biodiversidade Laboratório de Genética Animal Av André Araújo 2936 Petrópolis CEP 69067 375 Brazil

Laboratory of Fish Genetics Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Czech Academy of Sciences Rumburská 89 277 21 Liběchov Czech Republic

School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia Penang 11800 Malaysia

Secretaria de Estado de Educação de Mato Grosso SEDUC MT Cuiabá MT 78049 909 Brazil

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