Decision-making is a complex action requiring efficient information processing. Specifically, in movement in which performance efficiency depends on reaction time, e.g., open-loop controlled movements, these processes may play a crucial role. Information processing includes three distinct stages, stimulus identification, response selection, and response programming. Mainly, response selection may play a substantial contribution to the reaction time and appropriate decision making. The duration of this stage depends on the number of possible choices an individual has to "screen" to make a proper decision. Given that reaction time is crucial in many sports, the possibilities of reducing it through practice are very tempting. The information processing and its relationship to the manner an individual is practicing are discussed. Especially the variability of practice issues will be explored. In variable practice conditions, an individual has to react to one or more stimuli and has to produce one of the many variations of the same movement or different movements they learned. One has to identify a stimulus appropriately and has to select a response optimally, i.e., choosing from as few choices as possible to reduce the reaction time. On the other hand, in constant practice conditions, an individual can be exposed to one or many stimuli. Still, there is only one variation of the movement that can be executed in the presence of a learned stimulus. Based on the information processing theory and the results of the research focusing on variability of practice, I discuss how the practice conditions may affect reaction time and, as a result, the decision-making process. I conceptually frame the possible implications of practice conditions on decision making related to information processing. In this review, a possible mechanism and relationship between practice conditions and decision-making are presented. Future research directions are presented.

Faculty of Physical Education and Sport University School of Physical Education in Wrocław Wrocław Poland

Faculty of Sport Studies Masaryk University Brno Czechia

Physical Activity Sport and Recreation Research Focus Area North West University Potchefstroom South Africa

Komentář v

Front Psychol. 2021 Aug 04;12:685749. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685749. PubMed

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Abernethy B., Farrow D., Gorman A., Mann D. L. (2012). Anticipatory behaviour and expert performance, in Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory, and Practice, 2nd Edn, eds Hodges N. J., Williams A. M. (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 287–305.

Anderson D. I., Magill R. A., Mayo A. M., Steel K. A. (2020). Enhancing motor skill acquisition with augmented feedback, in Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory, and Practice, 3rd Edn, eds Nicola J., Hodges, Williams A. M. (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 3–19.

Anderson J. R. (2000). Learning and Memory: An Integrated Approach, 2nd Edn. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons Inc.

Attneave F. (1959). Applications of Information Theory to Psychology: A Summary of Basic Concepts, Methods, and Results. New York, NY: Henry Holt.

Battig W. F. (1966). Facilitation and interference, in Acquisition of Skill, ed Bilodeau E. A. (Cambridge, MA: Academic Press; ), 215–244.

Battig W. F. (1972). Intratask interference as a source of facilitation in transfer and retention, in Topics in Learning and Performance, eds Thompson R. F., Voss J. F. (Cambridge, MA: Academic Press; ), 131–159.

Battig W. F., Shea J. B. (1980). Levels of processing of verbal materials: an overview, in Motor Learning and Biomechanical Factors in Sport, eds Klavora P., Flowers J. (Toronto, ON: University of Toronto; ), 24–33.

Bernstein N. A. (1967). The Coordination and Regulation of Movements. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Bernstein N. A. (1982). Some emergent problems of the regulation of motor acts, in Human Motor Actions: Bernstein Reassessed, ed Whiting H. T. A. (Amsterdam: North-Holland; ), 343–371.

Boyce B. A., Coker C. A., Bunker L. K. (2006). Implications for variability of practice from pedagogy and motor learning perspectives: finding a common ground. Quest 58, 330–343. 10.1080/00336297.2006.10491886 DOI

Brady F. (2004). Contextual Interference: a meta-analytic study. Percept. Mot. Skills 99, 116–126. 10.2466/pms.99.1.116-126 PubMed DOI

Broadbent D. E. (1958). Perception and Communication. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Broadbent D. P., Causer J., Ford P. R., Williams A. M. (2015). Contextual interference effect on perceptual-cognitive skills training. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 47, 1243–1250. 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000530 PubMed DOI

Broadbent D. P., Causer J., Ford P. R., Williams A. M. (2019). Training perceptual-cognitive expertise: how should practice be structured, in Anticipation and Decision Making in Sport, Williams A. M., Jackson R. C. eds, (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 286–305.

Broadbent D. P., Causer J., Williams A. M., Ford P. R. (2017). The role of error processing in the contextual interference effect during the training of perceptual-cognitive skills. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 43, 1329–1342. 10.1037/xhp0000375 PubMed DOI

Causer J., Janelle C. M., Vickers J. N., Williams A. M. (2012). Perceptual expertise: what can be trained? in Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory, and Practice, 2nd Edn, eds Nicola J., Hodges, Williams A. M. (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 307–324.

Chase W. G., Simon H. A. (1973). Perception in chess. Cogn. Psychol. 4, 55–81. 10.1016/0010-0285(73)90004-2 DOI

Chua L. K., Dimapilis M. K., Iwatsuki T., Abdollahipour R., Lewthwaite R., Wulf G. (2019). Practice variability promotes an external focus of attention and enhances motor skill learning. Hum. Mov. Sci. 64, 307–319. 10.1016/j.humov.2019.02.015 PubMed DOI

Cohen R. G., Sternad D. (2009). Variability in motor learning: relocating, channeling, and reducing noise. Exp. Brain Res. 193, 69–83. 10.1007/s00221-008-1596-1 PubMed DOI PMC

Coker C. A. (2017). Motor Learning and Control for Practitioners, 3rd Edn. Abingdon: Routledge.

Czyż S. H., Zvonař M., Pretorius E. (2019). The development of generalized motor program in constant and variable practice conditions. Front. Psychol. 10:2760. 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02760 PubMed DOI PMC

Davids K., Araújo D., Button C., Renshaw I. (2007). Degenerate brains, indeterminate behavior, and representative tasks: implications for experimental design in sport psychology research, in Handbook of Sport Psychology, eds Tenenbaum G., Eklund E. C. (New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.), 224–244.

Davids K., Button C., Bennett S. (2008). Dynamics of Skill Acquisition: A Constraints-Led Approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Deutsch J. A., Deutsch D. (1963). Attention: some theoretical considerations. Psychol. Rev. 70, 80–90. 10.1037/h0039515 PubMed DOI

Deutsch K. M., Newell K. M. (2004). Changes in the structure of children's isometric force variability with practice. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 88, 319–333. 10.1016/j.jecp.2004.04.003 PubMed DOI

Dhawale A. K., Smith M. A., Ölveczky B. P. (2017). The role of variability in motor learning. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 40, 479–498. 10.1146/annurev-neuro-072116-031548 PubMed DOI PMC

Donders F. C. (1868). On the speed of mental processes, in 1969 Attention and Performance II, ed Koster W. G. (Amsterdam: North-Holland; ), 412–431. PubMed

Gibson E. J., Pick A. D. (2000). An Ecological Approach to Perceptual Learning and Development–Eleanor Jack Gibson, Anne D. Pick, Professor at the Institute of Child Development Anne D Pick, Susan Linn Sage Professor of Psychology Eleanor J Gibson–Google Books. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gibson J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Behav. Sci. 26, 308–309. 10.1002/bs.3830260313 DOI

Gibson J. J. (2014). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Hove: Psychology Press.

Gibson J. J., Gibson E. J. (1955). Perceptual learning: differentiation or enrichment? Psychol. Rev. 62, 32–41. 10.1037/h0048826 PubMed DOI

Henry F. M., Rogers D. E. (1960). Increased response latency for complicated movements and a “memory drum” theory of neuromotor reaction. Res. Q. Am. Assoc. Health Phys. Educ. Recreat. 31, 448–458. 10.1080/10671188.1960.10762052 DOI

Hick W. E. (1952). On the rate of gain of information. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 4, 11–26. 10.1080/17470215208416600 DOI

Huys R., Daffertshofer A., Beek P. J. (2004). The evolution of coordination during skill acquisition: the dynamical systems approach, in Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory, and Practice, 1st Edn, eds Williams A. M., Hodges N. J. (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 351–373.

Hyman R. (1953). Stimulus information as a determinant of reaction time. J. Exp. Psychol. 45, 188–196. 10.1037/h0056940 PubMed DOI

Jersild A. T. (1927). Mental set and shift. Archives of psychology, whole no. 89. J. Exp. Psychol. 49, 29–50.

Keele S. W. (1973). Attention and Human Performance. Akron, OH: Goodyear.

Kerr R. (1982). Practice variability: abstraction or interference. Percept. Mot. Skills 54, 219–224. 10.2466/pms.1982.54.1.219 PubMed DOI

Khan M. A., Helsen W. F., Franks I. M. (2010). The preparation and control of multiple–target aiming movements, in Vision and Goal-Directed Movement: Neurobehavioral Perspectives, eds Elliott D., Khan M. A. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; ), 97–11.

Kiesel A., Steinhauser M., Wendt M., Falkenstein M., Jost K., Philipp A. M., et al. . (2010). Control and interference in task switching-a review. Psychol. Bull. 136, 849–874. 10.1037/a0019842 PubMed DOI

Klapp S. T. (1995). Motor response programming during simple choice reaction time: the role of practice. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 21, 1015–1027. 10.1037/0096-1523.21.5.1015 DOI

Klapp S. T. (2003). Reaction time analysis of two types of motor preparation for speech articulation: action as a sequence of chunks. J. Mot. Behav. 35, 135–150. 10.1080/00222890309602129 PubMed DOI

Lee T. D. (2012). Contextual interference: generalizability and limitations, in Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory, and Practice, 2nd Edn, eds Hodges N.J., Williams A. M. (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 79–93.

Lee T. D., Magill R. A., Weeks D. J. (1985). Influence of practice schedule on testing schema theory predictions in adults. J. Mot. Behav. 17, 283–299. 10.1080/00222895.1985.10735350 PubMed DOI

Lee T. D., Simon D. (2004). Contextual interference, in Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory, and Practice, eds Williams A. M., Hodges E. J. (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 29–44.

Lee T. D., Swinnen S. P., Serrien D. J. (1994). Cognitive effort and motor learning. Quest 46, 328–344. 10.1080/00336297.1994.10484130 DOI

Magill R. A., Anderson D. I. (2017). Motor Learning and Control: Concepts and Applications, 11th Edn. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

Magill R. A., Hall K. G. (1990). A review of the contextual interference effect in motor skill acquisition. Hum. Mov. Sci. 9, 241–289. 10.1016/0167-9457(90)90005-X DOI

Moxley S. E. (1979). Schema: the variability of practice hypothesis. J. Mot. Behav. 11, 65–70. 10.1080/00222895.1979.10735173 PubMed DOI

Neumann O. (1996). Chapter 10 Theories of attention, in Handbook of Perception and Action, Vol. 3, eds Neumann O., Sanders A. F. (Cambridge, MA: Academic Press; ), 389–446.

Newell K. M. (1985). Coordination, control, and skil, in Differing Perspectives in Motor Learning, Memory, and Control, eds Goodman D., Wilberg R. B., Franks I. M. (Amsterdam: North-Holland; ), 295–317.

Newell K. M. (1986). Constraints on the development of coordination, in Motor Development in Children: Aspects of Coordination and Control, eds Wade M. G., Whiting H. T. A. (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff; ), 341–360.

Newell K. M. (1991). Motor skill acquisition. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 42:237. 10.1146/annurev.ps.42.020191.001241 PubMed DOI

North J. S., Williams A. M. (2019). Familiarity detection and pattern perception, in Anticipation and Decision Making in Sport, eds Williams A. M., Jackson R. C. (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 25–42.

Pizlo Z. (2008). 3D Shape: Its Unique Place in Visual Perception. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Posner M. I. (1978). Chronometric Explorations of Mind. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Poulton E. E. (1957). On prediction in skilled movements. Psychol. Bull. 54, 467–478. 10.1037/h0045515 PubMed DOI

Proctor R. W., Dutta A. (1995). Skill Acquisition and Human Performance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Rosenbaum D. A. (1980). Human movement initiation: specification of arm, direction, and extent. J. Exp. Psycho. Gen. 109, 444–474. 10.1037/0096-3445.109.4.444 PubMed DOI

Schmidt R. A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychol. Rev. 82, 225–260. 10.1037/h0076770 PubMed DOI

Schmidt R. A. (1985). The search for invariance in skilled movement behavior. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 56, 188–200. 10.1080/02701367.1985.10608457 DOI

Schmidt R. A. (2003). Motor schema theory after 27 years: reflections and implications for a new theory. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 74, 366–375. 10.1080/02701367.2003.10609106 PubMed DOI

Schmidt R. A., Lee T. D., Winstein C. J., Wulf G., Zelaznik H. N. (2018). Motor Control and Learning: A behavioral emphasis, 6th Edn. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Schmidt R. A., Zelaznik H., Hawkins B., Frank J. S., Quinn J. T. (1979). Motor-output variability: a theory for the accuracy of rapid motor acts. Psychol. Rev. 86, 415–451. 10.1037/0033-295X.86.5.415 PubMed DOI

Schmidt R. A., Zelaznik H. N., Frank J. S. (1978). Sources of inaccuracy in rapid movement, in Information Processing in Motor Control and Learning, ed Stelmach (Elsevier) G. E. 183–203. 10.1016/B978-0-12-665960-3.50014-1 DOI

Scully D. M., Newell K. M. (1985). Observational learning and the acquisition of motor skills: toward a visual perception perspective. J. Hum. Mov. Stud. 11, 169–186.

Seibel R. (1962). Discrimination reaction time as a function of the number of stimulus-response pairs and the self-pacing adjustment of the subject. Psychol. Monogr. Gen. Appl. 76, 1–22. 10.1037/h0093917 DOI

Seibel R. (1963). Discrimination reaction time for a 1,023-alternative task. J. Exp. Psychol. 66, 215–226. 10.1037/h0048914 PubMed DOI

Shapiro D. C., Schmidt R. A. (1982). The schema theory: recent evidence and developmental implications, in The Development of Movement Control and Co-ordination, eds KeIso J. A. S., Clark J. E. (New York, NY: Wiley; ), 113–150.

Shea J. B., Morgan R. L. (1979). Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem. 5, 179–187. 10.1037/0278-7393.5.2.179 PubMed DOI

Shea J. B., Zimny S. T. (1983). Context effects in memory and learning movement information. Adv. Psychol. 12, 345–366. 10.1016/S0166-4115(08)61998-6 DOI

Sherwood D. E., Lee T. D. (2003). Schema theory: critical review and implications for the role of cognition in a new theory of motor learning. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 74, 376–382. 10.1080/02701367.2003.10609107 PubMed DOI

Sternberg S. (1969). The discovery of processing stages: extensions of donders' method. Acta Psychol. 30, 276–315. 10.1016/0001-6918(69)90055-9 DOI

Telford C. W. (1931). The refractory phase of voluntary and associative responses. J. Exp. Psychol. 14, 1–36. 10.1037/h0073262 DOI

Van Rossum J. H. A. (1987). Motor Development and Practice: The Variability of Practice Hypothesis in Perspective. Amsterdam: Free University Press.

Van Rossum J. H. A. (1990). Schmidt's schema theory: the empirical base of the variability of practice hypothesis. a critical analysis. Hum. Mov. Sci. 9, 387–435. 10.1016/0167-9457(90)90010-B DOI

Vickers J. N. (2007). Percpetion, Cognition, and Decision Training: The Quiet Eye in the Action. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Vickers J. N., Reeves M.-A., Chambers K. L., Martell S., Reeves M.-A., Chambers K. L., et al. . (2004). Decision training: cognitive strategies for enhancing motor performance, in Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory, and Practice, 1st Edn, eds Williams A. M., Hodges N. J. (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 127–144.

Welford A. T. (1952). The Psychological refractory period and the timing of high-speed performance–a review and a theory. Br. J. Psychol. 43, 2–19. 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1952.tb00322.x DOI

Williams A. M. (2020). Perceptual-cognitive expertise and simulation-based training in sport, in Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory, and Practice, 3rd Edn, eds Hodges N. J., Williams A. M. (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 237–254.

Williams A. M., Jackson R. C. (2019). Anticipation and Decision Making in Sport. Abingdon: Routledge.

Wright D., Verwey W., Buchanen J., Chen J., Rhee J., Immink M. (2016). Consolidating behavioral and neurophysiologic findings to explain the influence of contextual interference during motor sequence learning. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 23, 1–21. 10.3758/s13423-015-0887-3 PubMed DOI

Wright D. L., Kim T. (2020). Contextual interference: new findings, insights, and implications for skill acquisitio, in Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory, and Practice, 3rd Edn, eds Nicola J., Hodges, Williams A. M. (Abingdon: Routledge; ), 99–118.

Neuroplasticity in Motor Learning Under Variable and Constant Practice Conditions-Protocol of Randomized Controlled Trial