Understanding the processes that shape forest functioning, structure, and diversity remains challenging, although data on forest systems are being collected at a rapid pace and across scales. Forest models have a long history in bridging data with ecological knowledge and can simulate forest dynamics over spatio-temporal scales unreachable by most empirical investigations.We describe the development that different forest modelling communities have followed to underpin the leverage that simulation models offer for advancing our understanding of forest ecosystems.Using three widely applied but contrasting approaches - species distribution models, individual-based forest models, and dynamic global vegetation models - as examples, we show how scientific and technical advances have led models to transgress their initial objectives and limitations. We provide an overview of recent model applications on current important ecological topics and pinpoint ten key questions that could, and should, be tackled with forest models in the next decade.Synthesis. This overview shows that forest models, due to their complementarity and mutual enrichment, represent an invaluable toolkit to address a wide range of fundamental and applied ecological questions, hence fostering a deeper understanding of forest dynamics in the context of global change.

Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences Palacký University Olomouc Olomouc Czech Republic

Department of Innovation in Biological Agro food and Forest Systems University of Tuscia Viterbo Italy

Department of Water Resources and Environmental Modeling Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Czech Republic

DISAA Università degli Studi di Milano Milano Italy

Dynamic Macroecology Land Change Science Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research WSL Birmensdorf Switzerland

EPHE CEFE CNRS Univ Montpellier Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier IRD Montpellier France

Forest Ecology Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems ETH Zürich Zurich Switzerland

Forest Modelling Lab Institute for Agriculture and Forestry Systems in the Mediterranean National Research Council of Italy Italy

German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research Halle Jena Leipzig Leipzig Germany

Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ Leipzig Germany

INRAE CIRAD CNRS AMAP Univ Montpellier Montpellier France

Institute of Environmental Systems Research Osnabrück University Osnabrück Germany

Institute of Silviculture University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna Austria

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research Member of the Leibniz Association Potsdam Germany

SBiK F Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre Frankfurt am Main Germany

TUM School of Life Sciences Technical University of Munich Freising Germany

University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna Austria

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