Differentiation of sex chromosomes is thought to have evolved with cessation of recombination and subsequent loss of genes from the degenerated partner (Y and W) of sex chromosomes, which in turn leads to imbalance of gene dosage between sexes. Based on work with traditional model species, theory suggests that unequal gene copy numbers lead to the evolution of mechanisms to counter this imbalance. Dosage compensation, or at least achieving dosage balance in expression of sex-linked genes between sexes, has largely been documented in lineages with male heterogamety (XX/XY sex determination), while ZZ/ZW systems are assumed to be usually associated with the lack of chromosome-wide gene dose regulatory mechanisms. Here, we document that although the pygopodid geckos evolved male heterogamety with a degenerated Y chromosome 32-72 Ma, one species in particular, Burton's legless lizard (Lialis burtonis), does not possess dosage balance in the expression of genes in its X-specific region. We summarize studies on gene dose regulatory mechanisms in animals and conclude that there is in them no significant dichotomy between male and female heterogamety. We speculate that gene dose regulatory mechanisms are likely to be related to the general mechanisms of sex determination instead of type of heterogamety. This article is part of the theme issue 'Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part II)'.

Bell Museum of Natural History University of Minnesota Saint Paul MN 55108 USA

Department of Biological Sciences Marquette University Milwaukee WI 53201 USA

Department of Ecology Charles University Prague CZ 12844 Czech Republic

Florida Museum of Natural History University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611 USA

Institute for Applied Ecology University of Canberra Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2617 Australia

Milwaukee Public Museum 800 W Wells Street Milwaukee WI 53233 USA

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Heteromorphic ZZ/ZW sex chromosomes sharing gene content with mammalian XX/XY are conserved in Madagascan chameleons of the genus Furcifer

Madagascar Leaf-Tail Geckos (Uroplatus spp.) Share Independently Evolved Differentiated ZZ/ZW Sex Chromosomes

Expanding the classical paradigm: what we have learnt from vertebrates about sex chromosome evolution

Sex chromosome evolution among amniotes: is the origin of sex chromosomes non-random?

Preface

A brief review of vertebrate sex evolution with a pledge for integrative research: towards 'sexomics'

Are Geckos Special in Sex Determination? Independently Evolved Differentiated ZZ/ZW Sex Chromosomes in Carphodactylid Geckos

Independent Evolution of Sex Chromosomes in Eublepharid Geckos, A Lineage with Environmental and Genotypic Sex Determination

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