Chameleons are well-known lizards with unique morphology and physiology, but their sex determination has remained poorly studied. Madagascan chameleons of the genus Furcifer have cytogenetically distinct Z and W sex chromosomes and occasionally Z1Z1Z2Z2/Z1Z2W multiple neo-sex chromosomes. To identify the gene content of their sex chromosomes, we microdissected and sequenced the sex chromosomes of F. oustaleti (ZZ/ZW) and F. pardalis (Z1Z1Z2Z2/Z1Z2W). In addition, we sequenced the genomes of a male and a female of F. lateralis (ZZ/ZW) and F. pardalis and performed a comparative coverage analysis between the sexes. Despite the notable heteromorphy and distinctiveness in heterochromatin content, the Z and W sex chromosomes share approximately 90% of their gene content. This finding demonstrates poor correlation of the degree of differentiation of sex chromosomes at the cytogenetic and gene level. The test of homology based on the comparison of gene copy number variation revealed that female heterogamety with differentiated sex chromosomes remained stable in the genus Furcifer for at least 20 million years. These chameleons co-opted for the role of sex chromosomes the same genomic region as viviparous mammals, lacertids and geckos of the genus Paroedura, which makes these groups excellent model for studies of convergent and divergent evolution of sex chromosomes.

Department of Ecology Faculty of Science Charles University Prague Czech Republic

Department of Experimental Biology University of Jaén Jaén Spain

Laboratory of Fish Genetics Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Czech Academy of Sciences Liběchov Czech Republic

Prague Zoological Garden Prague Czech Republic

Zoologische Staatssammlung München Munich Germany

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