Triggers and biological processes controlling male or female gonadal differentiation vary in vertebrates, with sex determination (SD) governed by environmental factors or simple to complex genetic mechanisms that evolved repeatedly and independently in various groups. Here, we review sex evolution across major clades of vertebrates with information on SD, sexual development and reproductive modes. We offer an up-to-date review of divergence times, species diversity, genomic resources, genome size, occurrence and nature of polyploids, SD systems, sex chromosomes, SD genes, dosage compensation and sex-biased gene expression. Advances in sequencing technologies now enable us to study the evolution of SD at broader evolutionary scales, and we now hope to pursue a sexomics integrative research initiative across vertebrates. The vertebrate sexome comprises interdisciplinary and integrated information on sexual differentiation, development and reproduction at all biological levels, from genomes, transcriptomes and proteomes, to the organs involved in sexual and sex-specific processes, including gonads, secondary sex organs and those with transcriptional sex-bias. The sexome also includes ontogenetic and behavioural aspects of sexual differentiation, including malfunction and impairment of SD, sexual differentiation and fertility. Starting from data generated by high-throughput approaches, we encourage others to contribute expertise to building understanding of the sexomes of many key vertebrate species. This article is part of the theme issue 'Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part I)'.

Amphibian Research Center Hiroshima University Higashi Hiroshima 739 8526 Japan

Department of Biological Sciences Marquette University Milwaukee WI 53201 USA

Department of Biology McMaster University Life Sciences Building Room 328 1280 Main Street West Hamilton Ontario Canada L8S 4K1

Department of Cell Biology Duke University Medical Center Durham NC 27710 USA

Department of Ecology Evolution and Organismal Biology Iowa State University Ames IA 50011 USA

Department of Ecology Faculty of Science Charles University Viničná 7 12844 Prague Czech Republic

Department of Neuroscience and Developmental Biology University of Vienna A 1090 Vienna Austria

Department of Organismal Biology Systematic Biology Evolutionary Biology Centre Science for Life Laboratory Uppsala University Norbyvägen 18D 75236 Uppsala Sweden

Developmental Biochemistry Biocenter University of Würzburg 97074 Würzburg Germany

INRAE LPGP 35000 Rennes France

Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier ISEM UMR 5554 Montpellier France

Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries IGB Müggelseedamm 301 12587 Berlin Germany

MOE Laboratory of Biosystems Homeostasis and Protection and Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Cancer Molecular Cell Biology Life Sciences Institute Zhejiang University Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 People's Republic of China

School of Biological Sciences University of East Anglia Norwich Research Park Norwich NR4 7TU UK

The Xiphophorus Genetic Stock Center Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Texas State University San Marcos TX 78666 USA

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Rapid Sex Chromosome Turnover in African Clawed Frogs (Xenopus) and the Origins of New Sex Chromosomes

The European Reference Genome Atlas: piloting a decentralised approach to equitable biodiversity genomics

Premeiotic endoreplication is the mechanism of obligate parthenogenesis in rock lizards of the genus Darevskia

Madagascar Leaf-Tail Geckos (Uroplatus spp.) Share Independently Evolved Differentiated ZZ/ZW Sex Chromosomes

Mendelian nightmares: the germline-restricted chromosome of songbirds

Sex chromosomes in meiotic, hemiclonal, clonal and polyploid hybrid vertebrates: along the 'extended speciation continuum'

Expanding the classical paradigm: what we have learnt from vertebrates about sex chromosome evolution

Preface

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10.6084/m9.figshare.c.5438942