Deep neck infections are potentially dangerous complications of upper respiratory tract or odontogenic infections. The pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and potential spreading depend on the complex anatomy of the neck fascia. These infections can lead to severe pathological conditions, such as mediastinitis, sepsis, and especially airway impairment with difficult management. Because of the risk of life-threatening emergency situations and the possible impacts on the overall health status of affected children, their early recognition is of utmost importance. Torticollis, drooling, and stridor are the most common signs of advancing disease. Children presenting with these symptoms should be admitted to the paediatric intensive care unit for vital function monitoring, where the airway could be readily secured if function is compromised.

Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery University Hospital Brno Faculty of Medicine Masaryk University Jihlavska 20 625 00 Brno Czech Republic

Department of Paediatric Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine University Hospital Brno Faculty of Medicine Masaryk University Kamenice 5 625 00 Brno Czech Republic

Department of Paediatric Otorhinolaryngology University Hospital Brno Faculty of Medicine Masaryk University Cernopolni 9 662 63 Brno Czech Republic

Department of Simulation Medicine Faculty of Medicine Masaryk University Kamenice 5 625 00 Brno Czech Republic

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Wang L.-F., Kuo W.-R., Tsai S.-M., Huang K.-J. Characterizations of Life-Threatening Deep Cervical Space Infections: A Review of One Hundred Ninety-Six Cases. Am. J. Otolaryngol. 2003;24:111–117. doi: 10.1053/ajot.2003.31. PubMed DOI

Novis S.J., Pritchett C.V., Thorne M.C., Sun G.H. Pediatric Deep Space Neck Infections in U.S. Children, 2000–2009. Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 2014;78:832–836. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2014.02.024. PubMed DOI

Adil E., Tarshish Y., Roberson D., Jang J., Licameli G., Kenna M. The Public Health Impact of Pediatric Deep Neck Space Infections. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2015;153:1036–1041. doi: 10.1177/0194599815606412. PubMed DOI

Brook I. Anaerobic Bacteria in Upper Respiratory Tract and Head and Neck Infections: Microbiology and Treatment. Anaerobe. 2012;18:214–220. doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2011.12.014. PubMed DOI

Celakovsky P., Kalfert D., Smatanova K., Tucek L., Cermakova E., Mejzlik J., Kotulek M., Vrbacky A., Matousek P., Stanikova L., et al. Bacteriology of Deep Neck Infections: Analysis of 634 Patients. Aust. Dent. J. 2015;60:212–215. doi: 10.1111/adj.12325. PubMed DOI

Shimizu Y., Hidaka H., Ozawa D., Kakuta R., Nomura K., Yano H., Watanabe K., Katori Y. Clinical and Bacteriological Differences of Deep Neck Infection in Pediatric and Adult Patients: Review of 123 Cases. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2017;99:95–99. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2017.05.028. PubMed DOI

Mungul S., Maharaj S. Microbiology of Paediatric Deep Neck Space Infection. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2019;123:116–122. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2019.04.042. PubMed DOI

Vieira F., Allen S.M., Stocks R.M.S., Thompson J.W. Deep Neck Infection. Otolaryngol. Clin. N. Am. 2008;41:459–483. doi: 10.1016/j.otc.2008.01.002. PubMed DOI

Galati L. Deep Neck Abscesses. In: Myers E.N., Snyderman C.H., editors. Operative Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery. Elsevier; Philadelphia, PA, USA: 2018. pp. 513–518.

Moore K.L., Agur A.M.R., Dalley A.F. Clinically Oriented Anatomy. Wolters Kluwer; Philadelphia, PA, USA: 2018. Neck; pp. 2215–2367.

Grodinsky M., Holyoke E.A. The Fasciae and Fascial Spaces of the Head, Neck and Adjacent Regions. Am. J. Anat. 1938;63:367–408. doi: 10.1002/aja.1000630303. DOI

Guidera A.K., Dawes P.J.D., Stringer M.D. Cervical Fascia: A Terminological Pain in the Neck. ANZ J. Surg. 2012;82:786–791. doi: 10.1111/j.1445-2197.2012.06231.x. PubMed DOI

Guidera A.K., Dawes P.J.D., Fong A., Stringer M.D. Head and Neck Fascia and Compartments: No Space for Spaces. Head Neck. 2014;36:1058–1068. doi: 10.1002/hed.23442. PubMed DOI

Feigl G., Hammer G.P., Litz R., Kachlik D. The Intercarotid or Alar Fascia, Other Cervical Fascias, and Their Adjacent Spaces—A Plea for Clarification of Cervical Fascia and Spaces Terminology. J. Anat. 2020;237:197–207. doi: 10.1111/joa.13175. PubMed DOI PMC

Boscolo-Rizzo P., Marchiori C., Zanetti F., Vaglia A., Mosto M.C.D. Conservative Management of Deep Neck Abscesses in Adults: The Importance of CECT Findings. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2006;135:894–899. doi: 10.1016/j.otohns.2006.05.013. PubMed DOI

Wasson J., Hopkins C., Bowdler D. Did Ludwig’s Angina Kill Ludwig? J. Laryngol. Otol. 2006;120:363–365. doi: 10.1017/S0022215106000806. PubMed DOI

Lin H.W., O’Neill A., Cunningham M.J. Ludwig’s Angina in the Pediatric Population. Clin. Pediatr. 2009;48:583–587. doi: 10.1177/0009922809333095. PubMed DOI

Lawrence R., Bateman N. Controversies in the Management of Deep Neck Space Infection in Children: An Evidence-Based Review. Clin. Otolaryngol. 2017;42:156–163. doi: 10.1111/coa.12692. PubMed DOI

Pandey M., Kaur M., Sanwal M., Jain A., Sinha S.K. Ludwig’s Angina in Children Anesthesiologist’s Nightmare: Case Series and Review of Literature. J. Anaesthesiol. Clin. Pharmacol. 2017;33:406–409. doi: 10.4103/0970-9185.214318. PubMed DOI PMC

Feller L., Khammissa R.A.G., Altini M., Lemmer J. Noma (Cancrum Oris): An Unresolved Global Challenge. Periodontology 2000. 2019;80:189–199. doi: 10.1111/prd.12275. PubMed DOI PMC

Mathieu D., Neviere R., Teillon C., Chagnon J.L., Lebleu N., Wattel F. Cervical Necrotizing Fasciitis: Clinical Manifestations and Management. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1995;21:51–56. doi: 10.1093/clinids/21.1.51. PubMed DOI

King E., Chun R., Sulman C. Pediatric Cervicofacial Necrotizing Fasciitis: A Case Report and Review of a 10-Year National Pediatric Database. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2012;138:372–375. doi: 10.1001/archoto.2012.119. PubMed DOI PMC

Yellon R.F., Falcone T., Roberson D.W. Pediatric Otolaryngology. People’s Medical Publishing House; Shelton, WA, USA: 2013. Head and Neck Space Infections; pp. 1767–1789.

Daya H., Lo S., Papsin B.C., Zachariasova A., Murray H., Pirie J., Laughlin S., Blaser S. Retropharyngeal and Parapharyngeal Infections in Children: The Toronto Experience. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2005;69:81–86. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2004.08.010. PubMed DOI

Karkos P.D., Asrani S., Karkos C.D., Leong S.C., Theochari E.G., Alexopoulou T.D., Assimakopoulos A.D. Lemierre’s Syndrome: A Systematic Review: Systematic Review of Lemierre’s Syndrome. Laryngoscope. 2009;119:1552–1559. doi: 10.1002/lary.20542. PubMed DOI

Patel P.N., Levi J.R., Cohen M.B. Lemierre’s Syndrome in the Pediatric Population: Trends in Disease Presentation and Management in Literature. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2020;136:110213. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2020.110213. PubMed DOI

Van Hoecke F., Lamont B., Van Leemput A., Vervaeke S. A Lemierre-like Syndrome Caused by Staphylococcus Aureus: An Emerging Disease. Infect. Dis. 2020;52:143–151. doi: 10.1080/23744235.2019.1691255. PubMed DOI

Gavid M., Dumollard J.M., Habougit C., Lelonge Y., Bergandi F., Peoc’h M., Prades J.M. Anatomical and Histological Study of the Deep Neck Fasciae: Does the Alar Fascia Exist? Surg. Radiol. Anat. 2018;40:917–922. doi: 10.1007/s00276-018-1977-5. PubMed DOI

Craig F.W., Schunk J.E. Retropharyngeal Abscess in Children: Clinical Presentation, Utility of Imaging, and Current Management. Pediatrics. 2003;111:1394–1398. doi: 10.1542/peds.111.6.1394. PubMed DOI

Hoffmann C., Pierrot S., Contencin P., Morisseau-Durand M.-P., Manach Y., Couloigner V. Retropharyngeal Infections in Children. Treatment Strategies and Outcomes. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2011;75:1099–1103. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2011.05.024. PubMed DOI

Mohandas S., Gregory S., Chun R.H., Huppler A.R. Pediatric Deep Neck Space Infections: A Medical and Surgical Perspective. J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 2019;14:043–051. doi: 10.1055/s-0038-1661010. DOI

Huang C.-M., Huang F.-L., Chien Y.-L., Chen P.-Y. Deep Neck Infections in Children. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. 2017;50:627–633. doi: 10.1016/j.jmii.2015.08.020. PubMed DOI

Coticchia J.M., Getnick G.S., Yun R.D., Arnold J.E. Age-, Site-, and Time-Specific Differences in Pediatric Deep Neck Abscesses. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2004;130:201–207. doi: 10.1001/archotol.130.2.201. PubMed DOI

Lander L., Lu S., Shah R.K. Pediatric Retropharyngeal Abscesses: A National Perspective. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2008;72:1837–1843. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2008.09.001. PubMed DOI

Chang L., Chi H., Chiu N.-C., Huang F.-Y., Lee K.-S. Deep Neck Infections in Different Age Groups of Children. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. 2010;43:47–52. doi: 10.1016/S1684-1182(10)60007-2. PubMed DOI

Bou-Assaly W., Mckellop J., Mukherji S. Computed Tomography Imaging of Acute Neck Inflammatory Processes. World J. Radiol. 2010;2:91–96. doi: 10.4329/wjr.v2.i3.91. PubMed DOI PMC

Raffaldi I., Le Serre D., Garazzino S., Scolfaro C., Bertaina C., Mignone F., Peradotto F., Tavormina P., Tovo P.-A. Diagnosis and Management of Deep Neck Infections in Children: The Experience of an Italian Paediatric Centre. J. Infect. Chemother. 2015;21:110–113. doi: 10.1016/j.jiac.2014.10.011. PubMed DOI

Côrte F.C., Firmino-Machado J., Moura C.P., Spratley J., Santos M. Acute Pediatric Neck Infections: Outcomes in a Seven-Year Series. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2017;99:128–134. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2017.05.020. PubMed DOI

Sousa Menezes A., Ribeiro D.C., Guimarães J.R., Lima A.F., Dias L. Management of Pediatric Peritonsillar and Deep Neck Infections- Cross- Sectional Retrospective Analysis. World J. Otorhinolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2019;5:207–214. doi: 10.1016/j.wjorl.2019.04.003. PubMed DOI PMC

Shay S.G., Khayat S., Xu R., Srdanovic N., Patel S.J., Valika T., Lavin J.M. Resource Utilization of Intraoperative Cultures for Pediatric Deep Neck Space Abscesses. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2020;135:110115. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2020.110115. PubMed DOI

Demongeot N., Akkari M., Blanchet C., Godreuil S., Prodhomme O., Leboucq N., Mondain M., Jeziorski E. Pediatric Deep Neck Infections: Clinical Description and Analysis of Therapeutic Management. Arch. Pédiatrie. 2022;29:128–132. doi: 10.1016/j.arcped.2021.11.011. PubMed DOI

Inman J.C., Rowe M., Ghostine M., Fleck T. Pediatric Neck Abscesses—Changing Organisms and Empiric Therapies. Laryngoscope. 2008;118:2111–2114. doi: 10.1097/MLG.0b013e318182a4fb. PubMed DOI

Brook I. Spectrum and Treatment of Anaerobic Infections. J. Infect. Chemother. 2016;22:1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.jiac.2015.10.010. PubMed DOI

Wilson C.D., Kennedy K., Wood J.W., Kumar T.K.S., Stocks R.M.S., Thompson R.E., Thompson J.W. Retrospective Review of Management and Outcomes of Pediatric Descending Mediastinitis. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2016;155:155–159. doi: 10.1177/0194599816634636. PubMed DOI

Jain A., Singh I., Meher R., Raj A., Rajpurohit P., Prasad P. Deep Neck Space Abscesses in Children below 5 Years of Age and Their Complications. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2018;109:40–43. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2018.03.022. PubMed DOI

Gehrke T., Scherzad A., Hagen R., Hackenberg S. Deep Neck Infections with and without Mediastinal Involvement: Treatment and Outcome in 218 Patients. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 2022;279:1585–1592. doi: 10.1007/s00405-021-06945-9. PubMed DOI PMC

Sader H.S., Streit J.M., Carvalhaes C.G., Huband M.D., Shortridge D., Mendes R.E., Castanheira M. Frequency of Occurrence and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Bacteria Isolated from Respiratory Samples of Patients Hospitalized with Pneumonia in Western Europe, Eastern Europe and the USA: Results from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (2016-19) JAC Antimicrob. Resist. 2021;3:dlab117. doi: 10.1093/jacamr/dlab117. PubMed DOI PMC

World Health Organization . Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2021. (GLASS) Report: 2021.

Santiago-García B., Blázquez-Gamero D., Baquero-Artigao F., Ruíz-Contreras J., Bellón J.M., Muñoz-Fernández M.A., Mellado-Peña M.J. Pediatric Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis. Pediatric Infect. Dis. J. 2016;35:1175–1181. doi: 10.1097/INF.0000000000001270. PubMed DOI

Xu J.J., Peer S., Papsin B.C., Kitai I., Propst E.J. Tuberculous Lymphadenitis of the Head and Neck in Canadian Children: Experience from a Low-Burden Region. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2016;91:11–14. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2016.09.035. PubMed DOI

Moe J., Rajan R., Caltharp S., Abramowicz S. Diagnosis and Management of Children with Mycobacterium Abscessus Infections in the Head and Neck. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 2018;76:1902–1911. doi: 10.1016/j.joms.2018.03.016. PubMed DOI

Zhukhovitskaya A., Chang D.T., Huoh K.C., Pham N.S., Singh J., Ahuja G.S. Surgical Management of Atypical Mycobacterial Cervical Lymphadenitis in an Outbreak of Odontological Infection. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2020;131:109882. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2020.109882. PubMed DOI

Peralta G. Notes from the Field: Mycobacterium Abscessus Infections Among Patients of a Pediatric Dentistry Practice — Georgia, 2015. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2016;65:355–356. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6513a5. PubMed DOI

Hatzenbuehler L.A., Tobin-D’Angelo M., Drenzek C., Peralta G., Cranmer L.C., Anderson E.J., Milla S.S., Abramowicz S., Yi J., Hilinski J., et al. Pediatric Dental Clinic-Associated Outbreak of Mycobacterium Abscessus Infection. J. Pediatric Infect. Dis. Soc. 2017;6:e116–e122. doi: 10.1093/jpids/pix065. PubMed DOI

Kelly C.P., Isaacman D.J. Group B Streptococcal Retropharyngeal Cellulitis in a Young Infant: A Case Report and Review of the Literature. J. Emerg. Med. 2002;23:179–182. doi: 10.1016/S0736-4679(02)00489-4. PubMed DOI

Mutlu M., Dereci S., Aslan Y. Deep Neck Abscess in Neonatal Period: Case Report and Review of Literature. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2014;78:577–582. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2014.01.015. PubMed DOI

Orzell S., Suryadevara A. Pharyngitis and Pharyngeal Space Infections. In: Domachowske J., editor. Introduction to Clinical Infectious Diseases. Vol. 1. Springer; Cham, Switzerland: 2018. pp. 53–66. DOI

Harounian J.A., Patel V.A., Carr M.M. An Analysis of Perioperative Outcomes Following Cervical Abscess Drainage in Children under 2 years. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2019;116:125–129. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2018.10.038. PubMed DOI

Thompson J.W., Reddk P., Cohen S.R. Retropharyngeal Abscess in Children: A Retrospective and Historical Analysis. Laryngoscope. 1988;98:589–592. doi: 10.1288/00005537-198806000-00001. PubMed DOI

Shires P.M., Chow G. Trismus in the Paediatric Population. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 2015;57:339–343. doi: 10.1111/dmcn.12636. PubMed DOI

Collins B., Stoner J.A., Digoy G.P. Benefits of Ultrasound vs. Computed Tomography in the Diagnosis of Pediatric Lateral Neck Abscesses. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2014;78:423–426. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2013.11.034. PubMed DOI

Vural C., Gungor A., Comerci S. Accuracy of Computerized Tomography in Deep Neck Infections in the Pediatric Population. Am. J. Otolaryngol. 2003;24:143–148. doi: 10.1016/S0196-0709(03)00008-5. PubMed DOI

Rozovsky K., Hiller N., Koplewitz B.Z., Simanovsky N. Does CT Have an Additional Diagnostic Value over Ultrasound in the Evaluation of Acute Inflammatory Neck Masses in Children? Eur. Radiol. 2010;20:484–490. doi: 10.1007/s00330-009-1563-7. PubMed DOI

Velhonoja J., Lääveri M., Soukka T., Hirvonen J., Kinnunen I., Irjala H. Early Surgical Intervention Enhances Recovery of Severe Pediatric Deep Neck Infection Patients. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2021;144:110694. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2021.110694. PubMed DOI

Conte M., Vinci F., Muzzi E., Canuto A., Barbi E., Cozzi G. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Accuracy before Surgery in Children with Retropharyngeal Abscesses. J. Paediatr. Child Health. 2022;58:504–507. doi: 10.1111/jpc.15761. PubMed DOI

Nurminen J., Heikkinen J., Happonen T., Velhonoja J., Irjala H., Soukka T., Ivaska L., Mattila K., Hirvonen J. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Findings in Pediatric Neck Infections—A Comparison with Adult Patients. Pediatr. Radiol. 2022;52:1158–1166. doi: 10.1007/s00247-021-05275-6. PubMed DOI PMC

Cheng J., Elden L. Children with Deep Space Neck Infections: Our Experience with 178 Children. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2013;148:1037–1042. doi: 10.1177/0194599813482292. PubMed DOI

Baglam T., Binnetoglu A., Yumusakhuylu A.C., Gerin F., Demir B., Sari M. Predictive Value of the Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio in Patients with Deep Neck Space Infection Secondary to Acute Bacterial Tonsillitis. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2015;79:1421–1424. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2015.06.016. PubMed DOI

Salı E., Çelebi S., Çetin B.Ş., Çelik T., Özdinç Kızılay N., Yakut U., Güneş M., Hacımustafaoğlu M. Evaluation of Deep Neck Infections in Childhood. J. Pediatr. Inf. 2015;9:114–121. doi: 10.5152/ced.2015.2085. DOI

Gallagher N., Collyer J., Bowe C.M. Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio as a Prognostic Marker of Deep Neck Space Infections Secondary to Odontogenic Infection. Br. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 2021;59:228–232. doi: 10.1016/j.bjoms.2020.08.075. PubMed DOI

Cramer J.D., Purkey M.R., Smith S.S., Schroeder J.W., Jr. The Impact of Delayed Surgical Drainage of Deep Neck Abscesses in Adult and Pediatric Populations. Laryngoscope. 2016;126:1753–1760. doi: 10.1002/lary.25835. PubMed DOI

Wilkie M.D., De S., Krishnan M. Defining the Role of Surgical Drainage in Paediatric Deep Neck Space Infections. Clin. Otolaryngol. 2019;44:366–371. doi: 10.1111/coa.13315. PubMed DOI

Virbalas J., Friedman N.R. Impact of Neck CT on the Management of Suspected Pediatric Deep Neck Space Infection. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2021;147:110782. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2021.110782. PubMed DOI

Wong D.K.C., Brown C., Mills N., Spielmann P., Neeff M. To Drain or Not to Drain—Management of Pediatric Deep Neck Abscesses: A Case-Control Study. Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 2012;76:1810–1813. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2012.09.006. PubMed DOI

Johnston D., Schmidt R., Barth P. Parapharyngeal and Retropharyngeal Infections in Children: Argument for a Trial of Medical Therapy and Intraoral Drainage for Medical Treatment Failures. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2009;73:761–765. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2009.02.007. PubMed DOI

Hah Y.-M., Jung A.R., Lee Y.C., Eun Y.-G. Risk Factors for Transcervical Incision and Drainage of Pediatric Deep Neck Infections. J. Pediatric Surg. 2018;53:666–670. doi: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2017.06.013. PubMed DOI

Heilbronn C., Heyming T.W., Knudsen-Robbins C., Schomberg J., Simon D., Bacon K., Huoh K. Features Associated with Surgically Significant Abscesses on Computed Tomography Evaluation of the Neck in Pediatric Patients. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2021;150:110893. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2021.110893. PubMed DOI

Elliott M., Yong S., Beckenham T. Carotid Artery Occlusion in Association with a Retropharyngeal Abscess. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2006;70:359–363. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2005.06.021. PubMed DOI

Baldassari C.M., Howell R., Amorn M., Budacki R., Choi S., Pena M. Complications in Pediatric Deep Neck Space Abscesses. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2011;144:592–595. doi: 10.1177/0194599810393882. PubMed DOI

Ali N.-E.-S., Alyono J.C., Koltai P.J. Neonatal Retropharyngeal Abscess with Complications: Apnea and Cervical Osteomyelitis. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2019;126:109613. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2019.109613. PubMed DOI

da Silva P.S.L., Waisberg D.R. Internal Carotid Artery Pseudoaneurysm with Life-Threatening Epistaxis as a Complication of Deep Neck Space Infection. Pediatric Emerg. Care. 2011;27:422–424. doi: 10.1097/PEC.0b013e3182187539. PubMed DOI

Elsherif A.M., Park A.H., Alder S.C., Smith M.E., Muntz H.R., Grimmer F. Indicators of a More Complicated Clinical Course for Pediatric Patients with Retropharyngeal Abscess. Int. J. Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2010;74:198–201. doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2009.11.010. PubMed DOI

Watters K.F. Tracheostomy in Infants and Children. Respir. Care. 2017;62:799–825. doi: 10.4187/respcare.05366. PubMed DOI

Lubianca Neto J.F., Castagno O.C., Schuster A.K. Complications of Tracheostomy in Children: A Systematic Review. Braz. J. Otorhinolaryngol. doi: 10.1016/j.bjorl.2020.12.006. in press. PubMed DOI PMC

Davidson C., Jacob B., Brown A., Brooks R., Bailey C., Whitney C., Chorney S., Lenes-Voit F., Johnson R.F. Perioperative Outcomes After Tracheostomy Placement Among Complex Pediatric Patients. Laryngoscope. 2021;131:E2469–E2474. doi: 10.1002/lary.29402. PubMed DOI

Černý V., Chrobok V., Klučka J., Křikava I., Michálek P., Otáhal M., Škola J., Štourač P., Vymazal T. Zajištění obtížných dýchacích cest u dospělých a dětí. Anesteziol. Intenzivní Med. 2019;3:173–186.

Klučka J., Štourač P., Štoudek R., Ťoukálková M., Harazim H., Kosinová M. Controversies in Pediatric Perioperative Airways. BioMed Res. Int. 2015;2015:386761. doi: 10.1155/2015/368761. PubMed DOI PMC

Krishna S.G., Bryant J.F., Tobias J.D. Management of the Difficult Airway in the Pediatric Patient. J. Pediatr. Intensive Care. 2018;7:115–125. doi: 10.1055/s-0038-1624576. PubMed DOI PMC

Apfelbaum J.L., Hagberg C.A., Connis R.T., Abdelmalak B.B., Agarkar M., Dutton R.P., Fiadjoe J.E., Greif R., Klock P.A., Jr., Mercier D., et al. 2022 American Society of Anesthesiologists Practice Guidelines for Management of the Difficult Airway. Anesthesiology. 2022;136:31–81. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0000000000004002. PubMed DOI

Boven L., Clayton S., Sorrells D., Green R., Gungor A. External Carotid Artery Pseudoaneurysm Following Upper Respiratory Infection Masquerading as a Pharyngeal Abscess in an 8-Month-Old. Am. J. Otolaryngol. 2021;42:102962. doi: 10.1016/j.amjoto.2021.102962. PubMed DOI

Sundarrajan C., Isa S.A., Caruso J.P., Ban V.S., Shah G.B., Whittemore B.A., Sillero R. Treatment of Large Infectious Extracranial Carotid Artery Pseudoaneurysms in Children: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Child Nerv. Syst. 2021;37:1461–1470. doi: 10.1007/s00381-021-05084-0. PubMed DOI

Moss R.L., Musemeche C.A., Kosloske A.M. Necrotizing Fasciitis in Children: Prompt Recognition and Aggressive Therapy Improve Survival. J. Pediatric Surg. 1996;31:1142–1146. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3468(96)90104-9. PubMed DOI

Bingöl-Koloğlu M., Yıldız R.V., Alper B., Yağmurlu A., Çiftçi E., Gökçora İ.H., İnce E., Emiroğlu M., Dindar H. Necrotizing Fasciitis in Children: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Aspects. J. Pediatric Surg. 2007;42:1892–1897. doi: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2007.07.018. PubMed DOI

Celakovsky P., Kalfert D., Tucek L., Mejzlik J., Kotulek M., Vrbacky A., Matousek P., Stanikova L., Hoskova T., Pasz A. Deep Neck Infections: Risk Factors for Mediastinal Extension. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 2014;271:1679–1683. doi: 10.1007/s00405-013-2651-5. PubMed DOI

Mejzlik J., Celakovsky P., Tucek L., Kotulek M., Vrbacky A., Matousek P., Stanikova L., Hoskova T., Pazs A., Mittu P., et al. Univariate and Multivariate Models for the Prediction of Life-Threatening Complications in 586 Cases of Deep Neck Space Infections: Retrospective Multi-Institutional Study. J. Laryngol. Otol. 2017;131:779–784. doi: 10.1017/S0022215117001153. PubMed DOI

Hatherill M., Tibby S.M., Sykes K., Turner C., Murdoch I.A. Diagnostic Markers of Infection: Comparison of Procalcitonin with C Reactive Protein and Leucocyte Count. Arch. Dis. Child. 1999;81:417–421. doi: 10.1136/adc.81.5.417. PubMed DOI PMC

Han X., An J., Zhang Y., Gong X., He Y. Risk Factors for Life-Threatening Complications of Maxillofacial Space Infection. J. Craniofac. Surg. 2016;27:385–390. doi: 10.1097/SCS.0000000000002416. PubMed DOI PMC

Hilarius K.W.E., Skippen P.W., Kissoon N. Early Recognition and Emergency Treatment of Sepsis and Septic Shock in Children. Pediatr. Emerg. Care. 2020;36:101–106. doi: 10.1097/PEC.0000000000002043. PubMed DOI

Goins M.R., Beasley M.S. Pediatric Neck Masses. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. Clin. N. Am. 2012;24:457–468. doi: 10.1016/j.coms.2012.05.006. PubMed DOI

Lang S., Kansy B. Cervical Lymph Node Diseases in Children. GMS Curr. Top. Otorhinolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2014;13:1–27. doi: 10.3205/cto000111. PubMed DOI PMC

Meier J.D., Grimmer J.F. Evaluation and Management of Neck Masses in Children. Am. Fam. Physician. 2014;89:353–358. PubMed

Unsal O., Soytas P., Hascicek S.O., Coskun B.U. Clinical Approach to Pediatric Neck Masses: Retrospective Analysis of 98 Cases. North Clin. Istanb. 2017;4:225–232. doi: 10.14744/nci.2017.15013. PubMed DOI PMC

Riva G., Sensini M., Peradotto F., Scolfaro C., Di Rosa G., Tavormina P. Pediatric Neck Masses: How Clinical and Radiological Features Can Drive Diagnosis. Eur. J. Pediatr. 2019;178:463–471. doi: 10.1007/s00431-018-3305-9. PubMed DOI

Klučka J., Klabusayová E., Kratochvíl M., Musilová T., Vafek V., Skříšovská T., Kosinová M., Havránková P., Štourač P. Critically Ill Pediatric Patient and SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Children. 2022;9:538. doi: 10.3390/children9040538. PubMed DOI PMC

Cars T., Eriksson I., Granath A., Wettermark B., Hellman J., Norman C., Ternhag A. Antibiotic Use and Bacterial Complications Following Upper Respiratory Tract Infections: A Population-Based Study. BMJ Open. 2017;7:e016221. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016221. PubMed DOI PMC

Swain S.K., Sahana R. Deep Neck Space Infection in the Paediatric Age Group—A Review. Pol. J. Paediatr. 2020;95:169–174. doi: 10.5114/polp.2020.100669. DOI

Fahey T., Stocks N., Thomas T. Systematic Review of the Treatment of Upper Respiratory Tract Infection. Arch. Dis. Child. 1998;79:225–230. doi: 10.1136/adc.79.3.225. PubMed DOI PMC

Loftis L. Acute Infectious Upper Airway Obstructions in Children. Semin. Pediatric Infect. Dis. 2006;17:5–10. doi: 10.1053/j.spid.2005.11.003. PubMed DOI

Frankel L.R., Hsu B.S., Yeh T.S., Simone S., Agus M.S.D., Arca M.J., Coss-Bu J.A., Fallat M.E., Foland J., Gadepalli S., et al. Criteria for Critical Care Infants and Children: PICU Admission, Discharge, and Triage Practice Statement and Levels of Care Guidance. Pediatric Crit. Care Med. 2019;20:847–887. doi: 10.1097/PCC.0000000000001963. PubMed DOI