Stomata are crucial structures in plants that play a primary role in the infection process during a pathogen's attack, as they act as points of access for invading pathogens to enter host tissues. Recent evidence has revealed that stomata are integral to the plant defense system and can actively impede invading pathogens by triggering plant defense responses. Stomata interact with diverse pathogen virulence factors, granting them the capacity to influence plant susceptibility and resistance. Moreover, recent studies focusing on the environmental and microbial regulation of stomatal closure and opening have shed light on the epidemiology of bacterial diseases in plants. Bacteria and fungi can induce stomatal closure using pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), effectively preventing entry through these openings and positioning stomata as a critical component of the plant's innate immune system; however, despite this defense mechanism, some microorganisms have evolved strategies to overcome stomatal protection. Interestingly, recent research supports the hypothesis that stomatal closure caused by PAMPs may function as a more robust barrier against pathogen infection than previously believed. On the other hand, plant stomatal closure is also regulated by factors such as abscisic acid and Ca2+-permeable channels, which will also be discussed in this review. Therefore, this review aims to discuss various roles of stomata during biotic and abiotic stress, such as insects and water stress, and with specific context to pathogens and their strategies for evading stomatal defense, subverting plant resistance, and overcoming challenges faced by infectious propagules. These pathogens must navigate specific plant tissues and counteract various constitutive and inducible resistance mechanisms, making the role of stomata in plant defense an essential area of study.

Department of Agriculture Integral Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology Integral University Lucknow 226026 India

Department of Agronomy Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University Regional Agricultural Research Station Nandyal 518502 India

Department of Biochemistry Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana 141027 India

Department of Biotechnology Smt S S Patel Nootan Science and Commerce College Sankalchand Patel University Visnagar 384315 India

Department of Geology and Pedology Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology Mendel University in Brno 61300 Brno Czech Republic

Department of Plant Biotechnology Centre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore 641003 India

Department of Plant Pathology Assam Agricultural University Jorhat 785013 India

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya Pundibari Cooch Behar 736165 India

School of Agriculture Lovely Professional University Phagwara 144411 India

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