With the advent rise is in urbanization and industrialization, heavy metals (HMs) such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) contamination have increased considerably. It is among the most recalcitrant pollutants majorly affecting the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem like human well-being, animals, soil health, crop productivity, and diversity of prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes (plants, fungi, and algae). At higher concentrations, these metals are toxic for their growth and pose a significant environmental threat, necessitating innovative and sustainable remediation strategies. Bacteria exhibit diverse mechanisms to cope with HM exposure, including biosorption, chelation, and efflux mechanism, while fungi contribute through mycorrhizal associations and hyphal networks. Algae, especially microalgae, demonstrate effective biosorption and bioaccumulation capacities. Plants, as phytoremediators, hyperaccumulate metals, providing a nature-based approach for soil reclamation. Integration of these biological agents in combination presents opportunities for enhanced remediation efficiency. This comprehensive review aims to provide insights into joint action of prokaryotic and eukaryotic interactions in the management of HM stress in the environment.

Department of Life Sciences School of Science University of Management and Technology Lahore Pakistan

School of Chemical Engineering Aalto University Otakaari 24 02150 Espoo Finland

See more in PubMed

Abdelkrim S, Jebara SH, Saadani O, Chiboub M, Abid G, Jebara M (2018) Effect of Pb-resistant plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria inoculation on growth and lead uptake by Lathyrus sativus. J Basic Microbiol 58:579–589 PubMed DOI

Abedi Sarvestani R, Aghasi M (2019) Health risk assessment of heavy metals exposure (lead, cadmium, and copper) through drinking water consumption in Kerman city, Iran. Environ Earth Sci 78:1–11 DOI

Afzal MR, Naz M, Wan J, Dai Z, Ullah R, Rehman SU, Du D (2023) Insights into the mechanisms involved in lead (Pb) tolerance in invasive plants-the current status of understanding. Plants 12:2084 PubMed DOI PMC

Ali MS, Baek KH (2020) Jasmonic acid signaling pathway in response to abiotic stresses in plants. Int J Mol Sci 17:621 DOI

Ali Q, Ayaz M, Yu C, Wang Y, Gu Q, Wu H, Gao X (2022) Cadmium tolerant microbial strains possess different mechanisms for cadmium biosorption and immobilization in rice seedlings. Chemosphere 303:135206 PubMed DOI

Alsubih M, El Morabet R, Khan RA, Khan NA, Ahmed S, Qadir A, Changani F (2021) Occurrence and health risk assessment of arsenic and heavy metals in groundwater of three industrial areas in Delhi, India. Environ Sci Pollu Res 28:63017–63031 DOI

Amin H, Arain BA, Jahangir TM, Abbasi MS, Amin FJG (2018) Accumulation and distribution of lead (Pb) in plant tissues of guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) and sesame (Sesamum indicum L.): profitable phytoremediation with biofuel crops. Geol Ecol Landsc 2:51–60

Aziz KHH, Mustafa FS, Omer KM, Hama S, Hamarawf RF, Rahman KO (2023) Heavy metal pollution in the aquatic environment: efficient and low-cost removal approaches to eliminate their toxicity: a review. RSC Adv 13:7595–17610

Bello AO, Tawabini BS, Khalil AB, Boland CR, Saleh TAJE (2018) Phytoremediation of cadmium-, lead- and nickel-contaminated water by Phragmites australis in hydroponic systems. Ecol Eng 120:126–133 DOI

Bhattacharya S, Das A, Prashanthi K, Palaniswamy M, Angayarkanni J (2014) Mycoremediation of benzo [a] pyrene by Pleurotus ostreatus in the presence of heavy metals and mediators. Biotech 4:205–211

Bhavya G, Hiremath KY, Jogaiah S, Geetha N (2022) Heavy metal-induced oxidative stress and alteration in secretory proteins in yeast isolates. Arch Microbiol 204:72 DOI

Bissonnette L, St-Arnaud M, Labrecque M (2010) Phytoextraction of heavy metals by two Salicaceae clones in symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi during the second year of a field trial. Plant Soil 332:55–67 DOI

Çelik S, Akar ST, Şölener M, Akar T (2017) Anionically reinforced hydrogel network entrapped fungal cells for retention of cadmium in the contaminated aquatic media. J Environ Manag 204:583–593 DOI

Chakravorty M, Nanda M, Bisht B, Sharma R, Kumar S, Mishra A, Kumar V (2023) Heavy metal tolerance in microalgae: detoxification mechanisms and applications. Aquat Toxicol 260:106555 PubMed DOI

Chatterjee S, Das S (2023) Whole-genome sequencing of biofilm-forming and chromium-resistant mangrove fungus Aspergillus niger BSC-1. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 39:55 DOI

Chauhan M, Solanki M, Nehra KJ (2017) Putative mechanism of cadmium bioremediation employed by resistant bacteria. Jordan J Biol Sci 10:121

Chellaiah ER (2018) Cadmium (heavy metals) bioremediation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a minireview. Appl Water Sci 8:1–10 DOI

Chen L, Luo S, Xiao X, Guo H, Chen J, Wan Y, Rao CJA (2010) Application of plant growth-promoting endophytes (PGPE) isolated from Solanum nigrum L. for phytoextraction of Cd-polluted soils. Appl Soil Ecol 46:383–389 DOI

Chia JC (2021) Phytochelatin synthase in heavy metal detoxification and xenobiotic metabolism. Biodegradation technology of organic and inorganic pollutants. IntechOpen, pp 1410. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94650

Dagher DJ, Pitre FE, Hijri MJ (2020) Ectomycorrhizal fungal inoculation of Sphaerosporella brunnea significantly increased stem biomass of Salix miyabeana and decreased lead, tin, and zinc, soil concentrations during the phytoremediation of an industrial landfill. J Fungi 6:87 DOI

Danouche M, El Ghachtouli N, El Arroussi H (2021) Phycoremediation mechanisms of heavy metals using living green microalgae: physicochemical and molecular approaches for enhancing selectivity and removal capacity. Heliyon 7:07609 DOI

Deng J, Guo P, Zhang X, Su H, Zhang Y, Wu Y, Li Y (2020) Microplastics and accumulated heavy metals in restored mangrove wetland surface sediments at Jinjiang Estuary (Fujian, China). Mar Pollut Bull 159:111482 PubMed DOI

Duan C, Fang L, Yang C, Chen W, Cui Y, Li S (2018) Reveal the response of enzyme activities to heavy metals through in situ zymography. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 156:106–115 PubMed DOI

Ebrahimi M, Khalili N, Razi S, Keshavarz-Fathi M, Khalili N, Rezaei NJJ (2020) Effects of lead and cadmium on the immune system and cancer progression. J Environ Health Sci 18:335–343

Edo GI, Samuel PO, Oloni GO, Ezekiel GO, Ikpekoro VO, Obasohan P (2024) Environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and ecotoxicology of heavy metals. Chem Ecol 40:322–349 DOI

Emparan Q, Harun R, Danquah M (2019) Role of phycoremediation for nutrient removal from wastewaters: a review. Appl Ecol Environ Res 17:889–915 DOI

Fomina M, Bowen AD, Charnock JM, Podgorsky VS, Gadd GM (2017) Biogeochemical spatio-temporal transformation of copper in Aspergillus niger colonies grown on malachite with different inorganic nitrogen sources. Environ Microbiol 19:1310–1321 PubMed DOI

Fulke AB, Ratanpal S, Sonker S (2024) Understanding heavy metal toxicity: implications on human health, marine ecosystems and bioremediation strategies. Mar Pollut Bull 206:116707 PubMed DOI

Gaggero E, Malandrino M, Fabbri D, Bordiglia G, Fusconi A, Mucciarelli M, Inaudi P, Calza P (2020) Uptake of potentially toxic elements by four plant species suitable for phytoremediation of Turin urban soils. Appl Sci 10(11):3948 DOI

Gao Y, Miao C, Mao L, Zhou P, Jin Z, Shi W (2010) Improvement of phytoextraction and antioxidative defense in Solanum nigrum L. under cadmium stress by application of cadmium-resistant strain and citric acid. J Hazard Mater 181:771–777 PubMed DOI

González-González RB, Morales-Murillo MB, Martínez-Prado MA, Melchor-Martínez EM, Ahmed I, Bilal M, Parra-Saldívar R, Iqbal HM (2022) Carbon dots-based nanomaterials for fluorescent sensing of toxic elements in environmental samples: Strategies for enhanced performance. Chemosphere 1 DOI

Gomes BF, de Araújo CM, do Nascimento BF, Freire EM, Da Mottasobrinho MA, Carvalho MN (2022) Synthesis and application of graphene oxide as a nanoadsorbent to remove Cd (II) and Pb (II) from water: adsorption equilibrium, kinetics, and regeneration. Environ Sci Poll Res 15:1–5

Govarthanan M, Mythili R, Selvankumar T, Kamala-Kannan S, Kim HJE (2018) Myco-phytoremediation of arsenic- and lead-contaminated soils by Helianthus annuus and wood rot fungi, Trichoderma sp. isolated from decayed wood. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 151:279–284 PubMed DOI

Gul I, Manzoor M, Kallerhoff J, Arshad MJC (2020) Enhanced phytoremediation of lead by soil applied organic and inorganic amendments: Pb phytoavailability, accumulation and metal recovery. Chemosphere 258:127405 PubMed DOI

Gupta DK, Huang HG, Corpas FJ (2013) Lead tolerance in plants: strategies for phytoremediation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:2150–2161 DOI

Guzmán-Moreno J, García-Ortega LF, Torres-Saucedo L, Rivas-Noriega P, Ramírez-Santoyo RM, Sánchez-Calderón L, Vidales-Rodríguez LE (2022) Bacillus megaterium HgT21: a promising metal multiresistant plant growth-promoting bacteria for soil biorestoration. Microbiol Spectr 10:656–722 DOI

Hassan ZU, Ali S, Rizwan M, Ibrahim M, Nafees M, Waseem M (2017) Role of bioremediation agents (bacteria, fungi, and algae) in alleviating heavy metal toxicity. Probiotics in agroecosystem. Springer, pp 51737. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4059-7_27

Hložková K, Matěnová M, Žáčková P, Strnad H, Hršelová H, Hroudová M, Kotrba P (2016) Characterization of three distinct metallothionein genes of the Ag-hyperaccumulating ectomycorrhizal fungus Amanita strobiliformis. Fungal Biol 120:358–369 PubMed DOI

Huihui Z, Xin L, Zisong X, Yue W, Zhiyuan T, Meijun A, Guangyu S (2020) Toxic effects of heavy metals Pb and Cd on mulberry (Morus alba L.) seedling leaves: photosynthetic function and reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism responses. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 195:110469 PubMed DOI

Hussain S, Rengel Z, Qaswar M, Amir M, Zafar-ul-Hye M (2019) Arsenic and heavy metal (cadmium, lead, mercury and nickel) contamination in plant-based foods. Plant and Human Health. Springer, p 90

Iori V, Pietrini F, Bianconi D, Mughini G, Massacci A, Zacchini M (2017) Analysis of biometric, physiological, and biochemical traits to evaluate the cadmium phytoremediation ability of eucalypt plants under hydroponics. Iforest 10:416

Izrael-Živković L, Rikalović M, Gojgić-Cvijović G, Kazazić S, Vrvic M, Brčeski I, Karadžić I (2018) Cadmium specific proteomic responses of a highly resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. RSC Adv 8:10549–10560 PubMed DOI PMC

Jacob C, Courbot M, Martin F, Brun A, Chalot M (2004) Transcriptomic responses to cadmium in the ectomycorrhizal fungus Paxillus involutus. FEBS Lett 576:423–427 PubMed DOI

Jacob JM, Sharma S, Balakrishnan RM (2017) Exploring the fungal protein cadre in the biosynthesis of PbSe quantum dots. J Hazard Mater 324:54–61 PubMed DOI

Jaishankar M, Tseten T, Anbalagan N, Mathew BB, Beeregowda KN (2014) Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals. Interdiscip Toxicol 7:60 PubMed DOI PMC

Jiang M, Liu S, Li Y, Li X, Luo Z, Song H (2019) EDTA-facilitated toxic tolerance, absorption and translocation and phytoremediation of lead by dwarf bamboos. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 170:502–512 PubMed DOI

Jien SH, Lin YH (2018) Proteins in xylem exudates from rapeseed plants (Brassica napus L.) play a crucial role in cadmium phytoremediation. Clean Soil Air Water 46:1700164 DOI

Jin Y, O’Connor D, Ok YS, Tsang DC, Liu A, Hou D (2019) Assessment of sources of heavy metals in soil and dust at children’s playgrounds in Beijing using GIS and multivariate statistical analysis. Environ. Int 124:320–328 PubMed DOI

Joshi S, Gangola S, Bhandari G, Bhandari NS, Nainwal D, Rani A, Slama P (2023) Rhizospheric bacteria: the key to sustainable heavy metal detoxification strategies. Front Microbiol 14:1229828 PubMed DOI PMC

Kamal N, Liu Z, Qian C, Wu J, Zhong XJMR (2021) Improving hybrid Pennisetum growth and cadmium phytoremediation potential by using Bacillus megaterium BM18-2 spores as biofertilizer. Microbiol Res 242:126594 PubMed DOI

Khan S, Abd Hesham EL, Qiao M, Rehman S (2010) Effects of Cd and Pb on soil microbial community structure and activities. Environ Sci Pollut Res 17:288–296 DOI

Kumar V, Dwivedi S (2019) Hexavalent chromium stress response, reduction capability and bioremediation potential of Trichoderma sp. isolated from electroplating wastewater. Ecotoxicol Environmen Saf 185:109734 DOI

Kumar V, Dwivedi SK (2021) Mycoremediation of heavy metals: processes, mechanisms, and affecting factors. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:10375–10412 DOI

Kumar P, Fulekar MH (2018) Research article rhizosphere bioremediation of heavy metals (copper and lead) by Cenchrus ciliaris. J Environ Sci 12:166–176

Kumar P, Fulekar MH (2021) Cadmium phytoremediation potential of Deenanath grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) and the assessment of bacterial communities in the rhizospheric soil. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:2936–2953 DOI

Kumar V, Parihar RD, Sharma A, Bakshi P, Sidhu GPS, Bali AS, Gyasi-Agyei Y (2019a) Global evaluation of heavy metal content in surface water bodies: a meta-analysis using heavy metal pollution indices and multivariate statistical analyses. Chemosphere 236:124364 PubMed DOI

Kumar V, Singh S, Singh G, Dwivedi S (2019b) Exploring the cadmium tolerance and removal capability of a filamentous fungus Fusarium solani. Geomicrobiol J 36:782–791 DOI

Kushwaha A, Hans N, Kumar S, Rani RJE (2018) A critical review on speciation, mobilization and toxicity of lead in soil-microbe-plant system and bioremediation strategies. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 147:1035–1045 PubMed DOI

Lata S, Kaur HP, Mishra T (2019) Cadmium bioremediation: a review. J Pharm Sci Res 10(4120):4128

Leal MFC, Catarino RI, Pimenta AM, Souto MRS (2023) The influence of the biometals Cu, Fe, and Zn and the toxic metals Cd and Pb on human health and disease. Trace Elem Electroly 40:1 DOI

Li X, Zhang X, Cui Z (2017a) Combined bioremediation for lead in mine tailings by Solanum nigrum L. and indigenous fungi. Chem Ecol 33:932–948 DOI

Li X, Zhang X, Li B, Wu Y, Sun H, Yang Y (2017b) Cadmium phytoremediation potential of turnip compared with three common high Cd-accumulating plants. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:21660–21670 DOI

Li X, Wang Y, Pan Y, Yu H, Zhang X, Shen Y, Yuan Y (2017c) Mechanisms of Cd and Cr removal and tolerance by macrofungus Pleurotus ostreatus HAU-2. J Hazard Mater 330:1–8 PubMed DOI

Li Y, Liu K, Wang Y, Zhou Z, Chen C, Ye P, Yu FJC (2018) Improvement of cadmium phytoremediation by Centella asiatica L. after soil inoculation with cadmium-resistant Enterobacter sp. FM-1. Chemosphere 202:280–288 PubMed DOI

Liu L, Gong Z, Zhang Y, Li P (2011) Growth, cadmium accumulation and physiology of marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) as affected by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Pedosphere 21:319–327 DOI

Liu L, Gong Z, Zhang Y, Li P (2014) Growth, cadmium uptake and accumulation of maize (Zea mays L.) under the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Ecotoxicol 23:1979–1986 DOI

Luo JS, Zhang Z (2021) Mechanisms of cadmium phytoremediation and detoxification in plants. Crop J 9:521–529 DOI

Mandal S, Saha K, Mandal N (2021) Molecular insight into key eco-physiological process in bioremediating and plant-growth-promoting bacteria. Front Agron 3:664126 DOI

Mathivanan K, Chandirika JU, Vinothkanna A, Yin H, Liu X, Meng DJE, Safety E (2021) Bacterial adaptive strategies to cope with metal toxicity in the contaminated environment-a review. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 226:112863 PubMed DOI

Mir MY, Hamid S, Rohela GK, Parray JA, Kamili AN (2021) Composting and bioremediation potential of thermophiles. Soil bioremediation: an approach towards sustainable technology. Wiley, pp 143–174 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119547976.ch7

Mitra A, Chatterjee S, Kataki S (2021) Bacterial tolerance strategies against lead toxicity and their relevance in bioremediation application. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:14271–14284 DOI

Mohsin H, Shafique M, Rehman Y (2021) Genes and biochemical pathways involved in microbial transformation of arsenic. In: Arsenic toxicity: challenges and solutions. Springer, pp 391–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6068-6_15

Munir N, Jahangeer M, Bouyahya A, El Omari N, Ghchime R, Balahbib A, Shariati MA (2021) Heavy metal contamination of natural foods is a serious health issue: a review. Sustainability 14:161 DOI

Naik MM, Pandey A, Dubey SK (2012) Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain WI-1 from Mandovi estuary possesses metallothionein to alleviate lead toxicity and promotes plant growth. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 79:129–133 PubMed DOI

Naik MM, Dubey SK (2013) Lead resistant bacteria: lead resistance mechanisms, their applications in lead bioremediation and biomonitoring. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 1:1–7 DOI

Navabpour S, Yamchi A, Bagherikia S, Kafi H (2020) Lead-induced oxidative stress and role of antioxidant defense in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Physiol Mol Biol Plants 26:793–802 PubMed DOI PMC

Navarro-León E, Oviedo-Silva J, Ruiz JM, Blasco B (2019) Possible role of HMA4a tilling mutants of Brassica rapa in cadmium phytoremediation programs. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 180:88–94 PubMed DOI

Noor I, Sohail H, Sun J, Nawaz MA, Li G, Hasanuzzaman M, Liu J (2022) Heavy metal and metalloid toxicity in horticultural plants: tolerance mechanism and remediation strategies. Chemosphere 303:135196 PubMed DOI

Olguín EJ, Sánchez-Galván G (2012) Heavy metal removal in phytofiltration and phycoremediation: the need to differentiate between bioadsorption and bioaccumulation. New Biotech 30:3–8 DOI

Onakpa MM, Njan AA, Kalu OC (2018) A review of heavy metal contamination of food crops in Nigeria. Ann Glob Health 84:488 PubMed DOI PMC

Padhye LP, Srivastava P, Jasemizad T, Bolan S, Hou D, Shaheen SM, Bolan N (2023) Contaminant containment for sustainable remediation of persistent contaminants in soil and groundwater. J Hazard Mater 455:131575 PubMed DOI

Parida L, Patel TN (2023) Systemic impact of heavy metals and their role in cancer development: a review. Environ Monit Assess 195:766 PubMed DOI

Peng W, Li X, Song J, Jiang W, Liu Y, Fan WJC (2018) Bioremediation of cadmium- and zinc-contaminated soil using Rhodobacter sphaeroides. Chemosphere 197:33–41 PubMed DOI

Priyadharshini SD, Babu PS, Manikandan S, Subbaiya R, Govarthanan M, Karmegam N (2021) Phycoremediation of wastewater for pollutant removal: a green approach to environmental protection and long-term remediation. Environ Pollut 290:117989 DOI

Rajendran S, Priya TAK, Khoo KS, Hoang TK, Ng HS, Munawaroh HSH, Show PL (2022) A critical review on various remediation approaches for heavy metal contaminants removal from contaminated soils. Chemosphere 287:132369 PubMed DOI

Rath S, Das S (2023) Oxidative stress-induced DNA damage and DNA repair mechanisms in mangrove bacteria exposed to climatic and heavy metal stressors. Environ Pollut 339:122722 PubMed DOI

Raven S, Saxena A, Ekka SB, Lee H, Noel AA, Nainan J, Tiwari A (2024) Synergistic bacteria-algae efficiency in remediation of heavy metals in wastewater, algae mediated bioremediation: industrial prospectives. Wiley, pp 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527843367.ch2

Raza A, Habib M, Kakavand SN, Zahid Z, Zahra N, Sharif R, Hasanuzzaman M (2020) Phytoremediation of cadmium: physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms. Biology 9:177 PubMed DOI PMC

Rekha K, Usha B, Keeran NS (2021) Role of ABC transporters and other vacuolar transporters during heavy metal stress in plants. In: Metal and nutrient transporters in abiotic stress. Academic Press, pp 55–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817955-0.00003-X

Rigoletto M, Calza P, Gaggero E, Malandrino M, Fabbri DJAS (2020) Bioremediation methods for the recovery of lead-contaminated soils: a review. Appl Sci 10:3528 DOI

Riyazuddin R, Nisha N, Ejaz B, Khan MIR, Kumar M, Ramteke PW, Gupta R (2021) A comprehensive review on the heavy metal toxicity and sequestration in plants. Biomolecules 12:43 PubMed DOI PMC

Rojjanateeranaj P, Sangthong C, Prapagdee B (2017) Enhanced cadmium phytoremediation of Glycine max L. through bioaugmentation of cadmium-resistant bacteria assisted by biostimulation. Chemosphere 185:764–771 PubMed DOI

Sangsuwan P, Prapagdee B (2021) Cadmium phytoremediation performance of two species of Chlorophytum and enhancing their potentials by cadmium-resistant bacteria. Environ Technol Innov 21:101311 DOI

Santiago-Martínez MG, Lira-Silva E, Encalada R, Pineda E, Gallardo-Pérez JC, Zepeda-Rodriguez A, Jasso-Chávez RJ (2015) Cadmium removal by Euglena gracilis is enhanced under anaerobic growth conditions. J Hazard Mater 288:104–112 PubMed DOI

Shan B, Hao R, Zhang J, Li J, Ye Y, Lu A (2023) Microbial remediation mechanisms and applications for lead-contaminated environments. W J Microbiol Biotechnol 39:38 DOI

Sharma KR, Giri R, Sharma RK (2020a) Lead, cadmium and nickel removal efficiency of white-rot fungus Phlebia brevispora. Let Appl Microbiol 71:637–644 DOI

Sharma R, Talukdar D, Bhardwaj S, Jaglan S, Kumar R, Kumar R (2020b) Bioremediation potential of novel fungal species isolated from wastewater for the removal of lead from liquid medium. Environ Technol Innov 18:100757 DOI

Shi G, Yan Y, Yu Z, Zhang L, Cheng Y, Shi W, Research P (2020) Modification-bioremediation of copper, lead, and cadmium-contaminated soil by combined ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa treatment. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:37668–37676 DOI

Shrestha R, Ban S, Devkota S, Sharma S, Joshi R, Tiwari AP, Kim HY, Joshi MK (2021) Technological trends in heavy metals removal from industrial wastewater: a review. J Environ Chem Eng 9:105688 DOI

Singh V, Singh N, Rai SN, Kumar A, Singh AK, Singh MP, Mishra V (2023) Heavy metal contamination in the aquatic ecosystem: toxicity and its remediation using eco-friendly approaches. Toxics 11:147 PubMed DOI PMC

Sun L, Cao X, Li M, Zhang X, Li X, Cui Z (2017) Enhanced bioremediation of lead-contaminated soil by Solanum nigrum L. with Mucor circinelloides. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:9681 DOI

Tang L, Hamid Y, Zehra A, Sahito ZA, He Z, Hussain B (2019) Characterization of fava bean (Vicia faba L.) genotypes for phytoremediation of cadmium and lead co-contaminated soils coupled with agro-production. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 171:190–198 PubMed DOI

Tang L, Hamid Y, Zehra A, Sahito ZA, He Z, Beri WT, Yang XJEP (2020) Fava bean intercropping with Sedum alfredii inoculated with endophytes enhances phytoremediation of cadmium and lead co-contaminated field. Environ Pollut 265:114861 PubMed DOI

Tchounwou PB, Yedjou CG, Patlolla AK, Sutton DJ (2012) Heavy metal toxicity and the environment. Environ Toxicol 133:164

Tsyganov VE, Tsyganova AV, Gorshkov AP, Seliverstova EV, Kim VE, Chizhevskaya EP, Kulaeva OAJ (2020) Efficacy of a plant-microbe system: Pisum sativum (L.) cadmium-tolerant mutant and Rhizobium leguminosarum strains, expressing pea metallothionein genes PsMT1 and PsMT2, for cadmium phytoremediation. Front Microbiol 11:15 PubMed DOI PMC

Wang H, Wu P, Liu J, Yang S, Ruan B, Rehman S, Zhu N (2020) The regulatory mechanism of Chryseobacterium sp. resistance mediated by montmorillonite upon cadmium stress. Chemosphere 240:124851 PubMed DOI

Wiangkham N, Prapagdee BJC (2018) Potential of Napier grass with cadmium-resistant bacterial inoculation on cadmium phytoremediation and its possibility to use as biomass fuel. Chemosphere 201:511–518 PubMed DOI

Wu Y, Ma L, Liu Q, Sikder MM, Vestergård M, Zhou K, Feng YJ (2020) Pseudomonas fluorescens promote photosynthesis, carbon fixation and cadmium phytoremediation of hyperaccumulator Sedum alfredii. Sci Tot Environ 726:138554 DOI

Wu S, Zhou Z, Zhu L, Zhong L, Dong Y, Wang G, Shi K (2022) Cd immobilization mechanisms in a Pseudomonas strain and its application in soil Cd remediation. J Hazard Mater 425:127919 PubMed DOI

Xu K, Du M, Yao R, Luo J, Chen Z, Li C, Lei A, Wang J (2024) Microalgae-mediated heavy metal removal in wastewater treatment: mechanisms, influencing factors, and novel techniques. Algal Res 5:103645 DOI

Xu Y, Seshadri B, Bolan N, Sarkar B, Ok YS, Zhang W, Rumpel C, Sparks D, Farrell M, Hall T, Dong Z (2019) Microbial functional diversity and carbon use feedback in soils as affected by heavy metals. Environ Int 125:478–488 PubMed DOI

Yang Y, Xiong J, Tao L, Cao Z, Tang W, Zhang J, Lu Y (2020) Regulatory mechanisms of nitrogen (N) on cadmium (Cd) uptake and accumulation in plants: a review. Sci Tot Environ 708:135186 DOI

Yang J, Huang Y, Zhao G, Li B, Qin X, Xu J, Li XJC (2022) Phytoremediation potential evaluation of three rhubarb species and comparative analysis of their rhizosphere characteristics in a Cd- and Pb-contaminated soil. Chemosphere 296:134045 PubMed DOI

Yetunde Mutiat FB, Gbolahan B, Olu O (2018) A comparative study of the wild and mutated heavy metal resistant Klebsiella variicola generated for cadmium bioremediation. Biorem J 22:28–42 DOI

Zhang J, Li Q, Zeng Y, Zhang J, Lu G, Dang Z, Guo C (2019) Bioaccumulation and distribution of cadmium by Burkholderia cepacia GYP1 under oligotrophic condition and mechanism analysis at proteome level. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 176:162–169 PubMed DOI

Zhao L, Zheng YG, Feng YH, Li MY, Wang GQ, Ma YF (2022) Toxic effects of waterborne lead (Pb) on bioaccumulation, serum biochemistry, oxidative stress and heat shock protein-related genes expression in Channa argus. Chemosphere 1:127714