BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Despite the last decade's significant development in the scientific study of work addiction/workaholism, this area of research is still facing a fundamental challenge, namely the need for a valid and reliable measurement tool that shows cross-cultural invariance and, as such, allows for worldwide studies on this phenomenon. METHODS: An initial 16-item questionnaire, developed within an addiction framework, was administered alongside job stress, job satisfaction, and self-esteem measures in a total sample of 31,352 employees from six continents and 85 cultures (63.5% females, mean age of 39.24 years). RESULTS: Based on theoretical premises and psychometric testing, the International Work Addiction Scale (IWAS) was developed as a short measure representing essential features of work addiction. The seven-item version (IWAS-7), covering all seven components of work addiction, showed partial scalar invariance across 81 cultures, while the five-item version (IWAS-5) showed it across all 85 cultures. Higher levels of work addiction on both versions were associated with higher job stress, lower job satisfaction, and lower self-esteem across cultures. The optimal cut-offs for the IWAS-7 (24 points) and IWAS-5 (18 points) were established with an overall accuracy of 96% for both versions. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: The IWAS is a valid, reliable, and short screening scale that can be used in different cultures and languages, providing comparative and generalizable results. The scale can be used globally in clinical and organizational settings, with the IWAS-5 being recommended for most practical and clinical situations. This is the first study to provide data supporting the hypothesis that work addiction is a universal phenomenon worldwide.

Adnan Kassar School of Business AACSB Accredited Department of Management Studies Lebanese American University Beirut Lebanon

Ateneo Center for Organization Research and Development Department of Psychology Ateneo de Manila University Quezon City Philippines

Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia Jakarta Indonesia

Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences University of Macau Macao China

Center of Excellence for Positive Organizational Psychology Erasmus University Rotterdam The Netherlands

Centre for Health Behaviours Research JC School of Public Health and Primary Care The Chinese University of Hong Kong Shatin NT Hong Kong China

Centre of Excellence in Responsible Gaming University of Gibraltar Gibraltar Gibraltar

Centro de Administração e Políticas Públicas Lisboa Portugal

Charles University Prague Czech Republic

College of Management Yuan Ze University Taiwan

College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences Wasit University Al Kut Iraq

Daugavpils University Daugavpils Latvia

Department of Business Administration School of Management Sciences Central University of Jharkhand Ranchi India

Department of Cardiology Astana Medical University Astana Kazakhstan

Department of Cognitive Science and Psychology New Bulgarian University Sofia Bulgaria

Department of Education and Psychology The Open University of Israel Ra'anana Israel

Department of Health Social and Welfare Studies University of South Eastern Norway Campus Vestfold Borre Norway

Department of Human Resource Management and Employment Relations King's Business School King's College London London United Kingdom

Department of Human Resources Management Business School Université du Québec à Trois Rivières Québec Canada

Department of Humanities and Social Sciences Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani India

Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management University of Johannesburg Johannesburg South Africa

Department of Journalism and Advertising State University of Trade and Economics Kyiv Ukraine

Department of Life and Health Sciences University of Nicosia Nicosia Cyprus

Department of Life Sciences University of Trieste Trieste Italy

Department of Management and Marketing University of Macau Macao China

Department of Medical Psychology School of Medical Sciences Universidad Nacional de Asunción San Lorenzo Paraguay

Department of Psychiatry Faculty of Medicine University of Colombo Colombo Sri Lanka

Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Aarhus University Aarhus Denmark

Department of Psychology East Carolina University Greenville NC USA

Department of Psychology Faculty for Social Wellbeing University of Malta Msida Malta

Department of Psychology Faculty of Arts University of Maribor Maribor Slovenia

Department of Psychology Faculty of Education Mansoura University Mansoura Egypt

Department of Psychology Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences University of Zagreb Zagreb Croatia

Department of Psychology Faculty of Philosophy University of Banja Luka Banja Luka Bosnia and Herzegovina

Department of Psychology Faculty of Social Sciences Kuwait University Kuwait City Kuwait

Department of Psychology Faculty of Social Sciences University of Macau Macao China

Department of Psychology Indiana University Northwest Gary IN United States

Department of Psychology Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University Tbilisi Georgia

Department of Psychology Karnatak University Dharwad Dharwad India

Department of Psychology School of Philosophy National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Athens Greece

Department of Psychology Sungkyunkwan University Seoul Republic of Korea

Department of Psychology Universidad Católica del Uruguay Montevideo Uruguay

Department of Psychology University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli Caserta Italy

Department of Psychology University of Chieti Pescara G d'Annunzio Chieti Italy

Department of Psychology University of Graz Graz Austria

Department of Psychology University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä Finland

Department of Psychology University of Liège Liège Belgium

Department of Psychology University of Limerick Limerick Republic of Ireland

Department of Psychology University of Picardie Jules Verne Amiens France

Department of Psychosocial Science University of Bergen Bergen Norway

Department of Social Psychology Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology University of Tokyo Tokyo Japan

Department of Social Sciences University of Nicosia Nicosia Cyprus

Department of Sociology Psychology and Social Work University of the West Indies Mona Jamaica

Department of Special Needs Education Ghent University Ghent Belgium

Department of Work and Organizational Psychology University of Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands

Department of Work Organization and Society Ghent University Ghent Belgium

Departments of Population and Public Health Sciences and Psychology and School of Social Work Keck School of Medicine University of Southern California Los Angeles CA USA

Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences International Balkan University Skopje Republic of North Macedonia

Faculty of Education Sciences and Psychology Universitat Rovira i Virgili Tarragona Spain

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Psychometrics and Psychological Studies Laboratory University of Blida 2 El Affroun Algeria

Faculty of Liberal Arts Department of Psychology Thammasat University Bangkok Thailand

Faculty of Media and Communication Singidunum University in Belgrade Belgrade Serbia

Faculty of Nursing Jordan University of Science and Technology Irbid Jordan

Faculty of Philosophy Nikšić University of Montenegro Podgorica Montenegro

Faculty of Psychology and Education Shahid Beheshti University Tehran Iran

Faculty of Psychology Lomonosov Moscow State University Branch in Tashkent Tashkent Uzbekistan

Faculty of Psychology University of Social Sciences and Humanities Hanoi Vietnam

Faculty of Social and Economic Sciences Comenius University in Bratislava Bratislava Slovakia

Institut Universitaire de France Paris France

Institute for Mental Health and Wellbeing College of Education Psychology and Social Work Flinders University Adelaide Australia

Institute of Psychology Czech Academy of Sciences Prague Czech Republic

Institute of Psychology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary

Institute of Psychology Faculty of Social Sciences University of Gdańsk Gdańsk Poland

Institute of Psychology Faculty of Social Sciences University of Silesia in Katowice Katowice Poland

Institute of Psychology Institute of Pedagogy Faculty of Social Sciences University of Silesia in Katowice Katowice Poland

Institute of Psychology of the University of Lausanne Lausanne Switzerland

Institute of Psychology University of Greifswald Greifswald Germany

Institute of Psychology University of Koblenz Koblenz Germany

Institute of Psychology University of Tartu Tartu Estonia

Institute of Psychology Vilnius University Vilnius Lithuania

Instituto Superior de Ciências Sociais e Políticas Universidade de Lisboa Lisboa Portugal

Interfaculty for Graduate Studies and Research Anton de Kom University of Suriname Paramaribo Suriname

International Gaming Research Unit Psychology Department Nottingham Trent University Nottingham United Kingdom

International Scientific Educational Center the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia Yerevan Armenia

Leeds University Business School Leeds United Kingdom

National Scientific and Technical Research Council Buenos Aires Argentina

Pedagogy and Psychology Department Faculty of Social Sciences University of Tirana Tirana Albania

Psychology and Counseling Department An Najah National University Nablus Palestine

Psychology Department College of Arts University of Bahrain Sakhir Bahrain

Psychology Department Ibero American University Mexico City Mexico

Psychology Department School of Humanities and Social Sciences Khazar University Baku Azerbaijan

Psychosocial Safety Climate Global Observatory Centre for Workplace Excellence Justice and Society University of South Australia South Australia Adelaide Australia

QualiPsy UR 1901 Université de Tours Tours France

Research Center Medical Cities Program MOI Saudi Arabia

Research Centre for Psychology and Human Well being Faculty of Social Science and Humanities Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangi Malaysia

Sakarya University of Applied Sciences Geyve Vocational School Turkey

Sao Paulo School of Business Administration FGV São Paulo Brazil

School of Business Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez Santiago Chile

School of Education The University of Zambia Lusaka Zambia

School of Health Sciences Universidad Sudamericana Pedro Juan Caballero Paraguay

School of Liberal Arts M Narikbayev KAZGUU University Astana Kazakhstan

School of Management College of Business Massey University Albany New Zealand

School of Management Human Resource Management University of Vaasa Finland

School of Natural and Environmental Sciences University of Environment and Sustainable Development Somanya Ghana

School of Psychological Sciences Birkbeck University of London London United Kingdom

School of Psychology Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador Quito Ecuador

School of Psychology Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra Santo Domingo Dominican Republic

Tanzania Institute of Education Dar es Salaam Tanzania

The Catholic University of Eastern Africa Nairobi Kenya

Universidad de Buenos Aires Buenos Aires Argentina

Universidad de Palermo Buenos Aires Argentina

Universidad Privada de Santa Cruz de la Sierra Santa Cruz Bolivia

University of Iceland Reykjavik Iceland

University of Milano Bicocca Milan Italy

University of Namibia Windhoek Namibia

University of Oradea Oradea Romania

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