We present an overview of wildlife-vehicle collision (WVC) liability covering 36 European countries. We reviewed approaches to WVC liability which are currently in effect across Europe and their potential consequences for WVC reporting. To obtain relevant information, we conducted a survey, including a web-based questionnaire. We retrieved answers to questions related to human fatalities from WVC, the existence of WVC databases, roadkill data systems and recommendation for drivers in the event of WVC. In 19 countries, no one is liable when a motorized vehicle collides with a wild animal. In the remaining countries, road managers or road owners may be liable as well as drivers or hunters, either consistently or under certain conditions. Liability can, in some countries, be changed after a legal assessment. Human fatalities due to WVCs have been reported in 27 countries, with approximately 90 deaths annually across European roads. The number of injured people and estimates of socio-economic losses were not possible to obtain at a European level as many countries lack reliable databases. We discuss how existing WVC liability across countries provoke some actors to transfer liability to another actor or avoid reporting these incidents altogether. WVC underreporting in certain national databases is one of the consequences of the existing WVC liability rules in the given countries. This fact reduces the potential to identify hotspots and define appropriate mitigation measures. In conclusion, we propose several procedures for modifying WVC liability that could enhance wildlife protection and road safety.

Administration de La Nature et des Forêts Service de La Nature Luxembourg

Association of Austrian Land and Forest Owners Vienna Austria; Institute of Wildlife Biology and Game Management University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna Austria

Callisto Wildlife and Nature Conservation Society Greece; Department of Ecology School of Biology Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Greece

CDV Transport Research Centre Brno Czechia

Centre of Estonian Rural Research and Knowledge Tartu Estonia

Cerema DTer Sud Ouest Saint Médard en Jalles France

Chair of Wildlife Ecology and Management Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources University of Freiburg Germany; Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management Inland Norway University of Applied Science Koppang Norway

Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management Inland Norway University of Applied Science Koppang Norway; Department of Ecoscience Aarhus University Aarhus Denmark

Department of Hunting State Forest Service Latvia

Department of Life Sciences Faculty of Life Sciences and Sports Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania Sfântu Gheorghe Romania; Faculty of Forestry University of Sopron Hungary

Ecological Counseling Center Cahul Cahul Republic of Moldova

Eurac Research Bolzano Italy

Faculty of Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy University of Life Sciences in Lublin Poland

Faculty of Environmental Protection Velenje Slovenia; Slovenian Forestry Institute Ljubljana Slovenia

Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences Open University of Cyprus Cyprus

Federation of Hunters of Kosovo Kosovo

Fish and Wildlife Service Umbria Region Italy

Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia Bulgaria

Institute of Natural Resource Sciences Zurich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW Wädenswil Switzerland

Langbein Wildlife Associates UK

MED Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture Environment and Development and CHANGE Global Change and Sustainability Institute University of Évora Portugal

Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Water Management Republic of Srpska Bosnia and Herzegovina

Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning Administration for Environment North Macedonia

Ministry of Interior of the Slovak Republic Slovakia

MINUARTIA Wildlife Consultancy Spain; Faculty of Biology University of Barcelona Spain

Natural and Agricultural Environmental Studies Department Service Public de Wallonie Belgium

Natural History Museum of Montenegro Podgorica Montenegro

Nature Research Centre Lithuania

Natuurpunt Studie Mechelen Belgium

Norwegian Institute for Nature Research Trondheim Norway

Protection and Preservation of Natural Environment in Albania Tirana Albania

Sligo Ireland

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences SLU Grimso Wildlife Research Station Riddarhyttan Sweden

University of Belgrade Faculty of Forestry Belgrade Serbia

University of Veterinary Medicine Hanover Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research Hanover Germany

University of Zagreb Faculty of Agriculture Department of Fisheries Apiculture Wildlife Management and Special Zoology Zagreb Croatia

Wageningen University and Research Wageningen the Netherlands

Wildlife Service Finland Ivalo Finland

Zarand Association Romania

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