The evolutionary processes that shape host-parasitoid coexistence in a changing environment are poorly understood. We examined the large-scale distribution of highly specialised polysphinctine Darwin wasps associated with spiders along an elevational gradient and tested the hypothesis that distribution and parasitism rates depend on elevation, habitat type and the species and age composition of the host community. Further, on the basis of a large-scale dataset, we examined the hypothesis that three-dimensional webs in spiders may be an evolutionary adaptation against polysphinctine parasitoids. We found significant variation in parasitoid distribution and parasitism rates along a 1500 m elevational gradient in central Europe. The optimal model showed a humped shape for the parasitism rate on an elevational gradient. Overall, we found relatively low parasitism rates (4%) on spiders, with the highest parasitism rates in non-forested riparian vegetation and the lowest in agroecosystems. Rates of parasitism varied significantly among spiders forming different types of webs (foraging guilds). Spiders spinning 3D webs were dominant in the spider community, but parasitism on them was lower compared to spiders spinning 2D webs, probably because of the defensive function of the 3D web architecture. The bottom-up approach, in which the entire spider host community is analysed for parasitism rate, supports the hypothesis that 3D webs are evolutionarily novel and could have arisen as a result of the need for defence against enemies such as parasitoids.

Crop Research Institute Prague Czech Republic

Department of Agroecology and Crop Production Faculty of Agrobiology Food and Natural Resources Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Praha Suchdol Czech Republic

Department of Forest Ecology Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology Mendel University in Brno Brno Czech Republic

Institute of Forest Ecology Slovak Academy of Sciences Zvolen Slovak Republic

Institute of Landscape Ecology Bratislava Slovak Academy of Sciences Nitra Slovak Republic

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