Intraspecific competition is a fundamental selective force in animals, leading to various specializations that influence ecological interactions. Diet composition and trophic position at the early life stages substantially influence fish growth, survival, and recruitment success. Yet, most studies focus disproportionately on adult stages, leaving critical knowledge gaps in our understanding of early life history. To address this, we used young of the year (YOY) pikeperch (Sander lucioperca) as a model species and investigated the intraspecific interaction and degree of trophic partitioning between three intra-annual cohorts (extremely small (ES), ordinary and piscivorous YOYs) using stable isotope (SI) and gut content analysis (GCA). Analysis of SI metrics unveiled that an ontogenetic diet shift was linked to increasing body size, leading to significant trophic niche variation among intra-annual cohorts. The piscivorous cohort occupied the highest trophic position, followed by the ordinary and ES cohorts. There was no overlap in the isotopic niche between the intra-annual cohorts, considering the 40% standard ellipse area. The GCA showed two distinct feeding patterns: the ES cohort exclusively consumed zooplankton, while the ordinary cohort had a more diverse diet, feeding on zooplankton and benthic macroinvertebrates. The piscivorous cohort (≥ 80 mm) predominantly fed on their conspecifics and YOY perch (Perca fluviatilis). Our study demonstrates that YOY pikeperch intra-annual cohorts exhibit a broad size range and unique ontogenetic feeding patterns, with vital implications for population dynamics and ecological interactions. These differences are likely due to different hatching dates, environmental factors, and individual ability to become predatory. Furthermore, this work emphasizes the need for comparative studies to better understand trophic dynamics and uncover the ecological factors shaping the early life stages of fish.

Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences Institute of Hydrobiology České Budějovice Czechia

Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research INAR Forest Sciences University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters South Bohemian Research Centre for Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice Vodňany Czechia

Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice České Budějovice Czechia

Institute of Soil Biology and Biogeochemistry Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences České Budějovice Czechia

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Akin, S. , and Winemiller K. O.. 2008. “Body Size and Trophic Position in a Temperate Estuarine Food Web.” Acta Oecologica 33: 144–153. 10.1016/j.actao.2007.08.002. DOI

Ameijeiras‐Alonso, J. , Crujeiras R. M., and Rodríguez‐Casal A.. 2021. “Multimode: An R Package for Mode Assessment.” Journal of Statistical Software 97: 1–32. 10.18637/jss.v097.i09. DOI

Araújo, M. S. , Bolnick D. I., and Layman C. A.. 2011. “The Ecological Causes of Individual Specialisation.” Ecology Letters 14: 948–958. 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01662.x. PubMed DOI

Balzani, P. , Avramović M., Delgado A., et al. 2024. “Trophic Ecology of Two Non‐Native Cyprinid Fish, the Common Carp DOI

Beaudoin, C. P. , Tonn W. M., Prepas E. E., and Wassenaar L. I.. 1999. “Individual Specialization and Trophic Adaptability of Northern Pike ( PubMed DOI

Bolnick, D. I. , Svanbäck R., Fordyce J. A., et al. 2003. “The Ecology of Individuals: Incidence and Implications of Individual Specialization.” American Naturalist 161: 1–28. 10.1086/343878. PubMed DOI

Bopp, J. , Herbst S. J., Hessenauer J., and Brenden T. O.. 2023. “Biotic and Abiotic Factors That Influence Walleye Recruitment in Stocked Lakes in Michigan.” North American Journal of Fisheries Management 43: 1673–1686. 10.1002/nafm.10946. DOI

Bousseba, M. , Ouahb S., Ferraj L., Farid S., Droussi M., and Hasnaoui M.. 2024. “Diet and Feeding Ecology of the Pike Perch ( DOI

Brandt, E. J. , Feiner Z. S., Latzka A. W., and Isermann D. A.. 2022. “Similar Environmental Conditions Are Associated With Walleye and Yellow Perch Recruitment Success in Wisconsin Lakes.” North American Journal of Fisheries Management 42: 630–641. 10.1002/nafm.10729. DOI

Caskenette, A. L. , and Mccann K. S.. 2017. “Biomass Reallocation Between Juveniles and Adults Mediates Food Web Stability by Distributing Energy Away From Strong Interactions.” PLoS One 12: e0170725. 10.1371/journal.pone.0170725. PubMed DOI PMC

Cobain, M. R. D. , Steward W., Trueman C. N., Jensen A., and Grabowski J.. 2019. “Individual Trophic Specialization in Juvenile European Seabass: Implications for the Management of a Commercially Important Species.” ICES Journal of Marine Science 76: 1784–1793. 10.1093/icesjms/fsz045. DOI

Costa‐Pereira, R. , Rudolf V. H. W., Souza F. L., and Araújo M. S.. 2018. “Drivers of Individual Niche Variation in Coexisting Species.” Journal of Animal Ecology 87: 1452–1464. 10.1111/1365-2656.12879. PubMed DOI

Davis, A. M. , Blanchette M., Pusey B. J., and Jardine T.. 2012. “Gut Content and Stable Isotope Analyses Provide Complementary Understanding of Ontogenetic Dietary Shifts and Trophic Relationships Among Fishes in a Tropical River.” Freshwater Biology 57: 2156–2172. 10.1111/j.1365-2427.2012.02858.x. DOI

De Moraes, K. R. , Souza A. T., Barto D., Blabolil P., Muška M., and Prchalov M.. 2023. “Can a Protected Area Help Improve Fish Populations Under Heavy Recreation Fishing?” Water 15: 632. 10.3390/w15040632. DOI

Deboer, J. A. , Pope K. L., and Koupal K. D.. 2013. “Environmental Factors Regulating the Recruitment of Walleye DOI

Eklöv, P. , and Svanbäck R.. 2006. “Predation Risk Influences Adaptive Morphological Variation in Fish Populations.” American Naturalist 167: 440–452. 10.1086/499544. PubMed DOI

Frankiewicz, P. , Dabrowski K., Martyniak A., and Zalewski M.. 1999. “Cannibalism as a Regulatory Force of Pikeperch, DOI

Frankiewicz, P. , Konrad D., and Zalewski M.. 1996. “Mechanism of Establishing Bimodality in a Size Distribution of Age‐0 Pikeperch,

Franz, H. , Haertel S. S., Steiner S., and Mehner T.. 2002. “Effects of Piscivore‐Mediated Habitat Use on Growth, Diet and Zooplankton Consumption of Roach : An Individual‐Based Modelling Approach.” Freshwater Biology 47: 2345–2358. 10.1046/j.1365-2427.2002.01002.x. DOI

Fuiman, L. A. , and Higgs D. M.. 1997. Ontogeny, Growth and the Recruitment Process BT—Early Life History and Recruitment in Fish Populations, edited by Chambers R. C. and Trippel E. A., 225–249. Springer. 10.1007/978-94-009-1439-1_8. DOI

Galarowicz, T. L. , Adams J. A., and Wahl D. H.. 2006. “The Influence of Prey Availability on Ontogenetic Diet Shifts of a Juvenile Piscivore.” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63: 1722–1733.

Ginter, K. , Kangur K., Kangur A., Kangur P., and Haldna M.. 2011. “Diet Patterns and Ontogenetic Diet Shift of Pikeperch, DOI

Ginter, K. , Kangur K., Kangur A., Kangur P., and Haldna M.. 2012a. “Diet Niche Relationships Among Predator and Prey Fish Species in Their Early Life Stages in Lake Võrtsjärv (Estonia).” Journal of Applied Ichthyology 28: 713–720. 10.1111/j.1439-0426.2012.02008.x. DOI

Ginter, K. , Kangur K., Kangur A., Kangur P., and Haldna M.. 2012b. “Shifts in Prey Selection and Growth of Juvenile Pikeperch ( DOI

Graeb, B. D. S. , Galarowicz T., Wahl D. H., Dettmers J. M., and Simpson M. J.. 2005. “Foraging Behavior, Morphology, and Life History Variation Determine the Ontogeny of Piscivory in Two Closely Related Predators.” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62: 2010–2020. 10.1139/F05-112. DOI

Guimerà, R. , Stouffer D. B., Sales‐Pardo M., Leicht E. A., Newman M. E. J., and Amaral L. A. N.. 2010. “Origin of Compartmentalization in Food Webs.” Ecology 91: 2941–2951. 10.1890/09-1175.1. PubMed DOI

Gutmann Roberts, C. , and Britton J. R.. 2018. “Quantifying Trophic Interactions and Niche Sizes of Juvenile Fishes in an Invaded Riverine Cyprinid Fish Community.” Ecology of Freshwater Fish 27: 976–987. 10.1111/eff.12408. DOI

Heermann, L. , Beeck P., and Borcherding J.. 2007. “Two Size Classes of 0 + Year Perch: Is Phenotypic Plasticity Based on Food Resources?” Journal of Fish Biology 70: 1365–1377. 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01417.x. DOI

Hobson, K. A. , Ofukany A., Soto D. X., and Wassenaar L. I.. 2012. “An Isotopic Baseline (δ 13C, δ 15N) for Fishes of Lake Winnipeg: Implications for Investigating Impacts of Eutrophication and Invasive Species.” Journal of Great Lakes Research 38: 58–65. 10.1016/j.jglr.2010.11.008. DOI

Huss, M. , Byström P., and Persson L.. 2008. “Resource Heterogeneity, Diet Shifts and Intra‐Cohort Competition: Effects on Size Divergence in YOY Fish.” Oecologia 158: 249–257. 10.1007/s00442-008-1140-9. PubMed DOI

Huss, M. , Persson L., Borcherding J., and Heermann L.. 2013. “Timing of the Diet Shift From Zooplankton to Macroinvertebrates and Size at Maturity Determine Whether Normally Piscivorous Fish Can Persist in Otherwise Fishless Lakes.” Freshwater Biology 58: 1416–1424. 10.1111/fwb.12138. DOI

Huss, M. , Persson L., and Byström P.. 2007. “The Origin and Development of Individual Size Variation in Early Pelagic Stages of Fish.” Oecologia 153: 57–67. 10.1007/s00442-007-0719-x. PubMed DOI

Hyslop, E. J. 1980. “Stomach Contents Analysis—A Review of Methods and Their Application.” Journal of Fish Biology 17: 411–429. 10.1111/j.1095-8649.1980.tb02775.x. DOI

Jackson, A. L. , Inger R., Parnell A. C., and Bearhop S.. 2011. “Comparing Isotopic Niche Widths Among and Within Communities: SIBER—Stable Isotope Bayesian Ellipses in R.” Journal of Animal Ecology 80: 595–602. 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01806.x. PubMed DOI

Jakubavičiūtė, E. , Arula T., Dainys J., et al. 2024. “Status and Perspectives for Pikeperch ( DOI

Jones, A. W. , and Post D. M.. 2016. “Does Intraspecific Competition Promote Variation? A Test via Synthesis.” Ecology and Evolution 6: 1646–1655. 10.1002/ece3.1991. PubMed DOI PMC

Jůza, T. , and Kubečka J.. 2007. “The Efficiency of Three Fry Trawls for Sampling the Freshwater Pelagic Fry Community.” Fisheries Research 85: 285–290. 10.1016/j.fishres.2007.03.001. DOI

Jůza, T. , Mrkvička T., Blabolil P., et al. 2013. “Occurrence of Age‐0 Year Dwarf Pikeperch PubMed

Jůza, T. , Sajdlová Z., Čech M., et al. 2018. “Improved Trawling Setup for Sampling Pelagic Juvenile Fish Communities in Small Inland Bodies of Water.” Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria 48: 105–108. 10.3750/AIEP/02373. DOI

Kakareko, T. 2002. “The Importance of Benthic Fauna in the Diet of Small Common Bream

Krolová, M. , Čížková H., and Hejzlar J.. 2012. “Depth Limit of Littoral Vegetation in a Storage Reservoir: A Case Study of Lipno Reservoir (Czech Republic).” Limnologica 42: 165–174.

Krolová, M. , Čížková H., Hejzlar J., and Poláková S.. 2013. “Response of Littoral Macrophytes to Water Level Fluctuations in a Storage Reservoir.” Knowledge and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems 408: 7.

Lappalainen, J. , Dörner H., and Wysujack K.. 2003. “Reproduction Biology of Pikeperch (

Layman, C. A. , Albrey Arrington D., Montaña C. G., and Post D. M.. 2007. “Can Stable Isotope Ratios Provide for Community‐Wide Measures of Trophic Structure?” Ecology 88: 42–48. PubMed

Layman, C. A. , and Allgeier J. E.. 2012. “Characterizing Trophic Ecology of Generalist Consumers: A Case Study of the Invasive Lionfish in The Bahamas.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 448: 131–141. 10.3354/meps09511. DOI

Leeuwen, A. v. , Huss M., Gårdmark A., and Roos A. M. d.. 2014. “Ontogenetic Specialism in Predators With Multiple Niche Shifts Prevents Predator Population Recovery and Establishment.” Ecology 95: 2409–2422.

Linzmaier, S. M. , Twardochleb L. A., Olden J. D., Mehner T., and Arlinghaus R.. 2018. “Size‐Dependent Foraging Niches of European Perch DOI

Lysy, M. , Stasko A. D., and Swanson H.. 2023. “nicheROVER: Niche Region and Niche Overlap Metrics for Multidimensional Ecological Niches.” https://github.com/mlysy/nicheROVER.

Maechler, M. 2024. “Hartigan's Dip Test Statistic for Unimodality.” https://github.com/mmaechler/diptest.

Martinez Arbizu, P. 2020. “pairwiseAdonis: Pairwise Multilevel Comparison Using Adonis.” https://rdrr.io/github/gauravsk/ranacapa/man/pairwise_adonis.html.

McCue, M. D. , Javal M., Clusella‐Trullas S., et al. 2020. “Using Stable Isotope Analysis to Answer Fundamental Questions in Invasion Ecology: Progress and Prospects.” Methods in Ecology and Evolution 11: 196–214. 10.1111/2041-210X.13327. DOI

Nunn, A. D. , Frear P. A., Lee M., and Cowx I. G.. 2010. “Is There Evidence for a Shift in Fish Growth and Recruitment Success Linked to Climate Change?” Journal of Fish Biology 44: 1780–1792. 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02751.x. PubMed DOI

Nunn, A. D. , Tewson L. H., and Cowx I. G.. 2012. “The Foraging Ecology of Larval and Juvenile Fishes.” Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 22: 377–408. 10.1007/s11160-011-9240-8. DOI

Oksanen, J. , Kindt R., Legendre P., et al. 2007. “The Vegan Package:Community Ecology Package.” Community Ecology Package 10: 631–637.

Paradis, Y. , Bertolo A., Perot A., Bas S. D., and Magnan P.. 2006. “Do Benthivory and Piscivory Result in Similar Growth in Walleye?” Journal of Fish Biology 69: 1317–1329. 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2006.01187.x. DOI

Persson, A. , and Brönmark C.. 2002. “Foraging Capacity and Resource Synchronization in an Ontogenetic Diet Switcher: Pikeperch (

Persson, A. , and Brönmark C.. 2008. “Pikeperch DOI

Peterka, J. , Matěna J., and Lipka J.. 2003. “The Diet and Growth of Larval and Juvenile Pikeperch ( DOI

Post, D. M. 2002. “Using Stable Isotopes to Estimate Trophic Position: Models, Methods, and Assumptions.” Ecology 83: 703–718. 10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[0703:USITET]2.0.CO;2. DOI

Post, D. M. 2003. “Individual Variation in the Timing of Ontogenetic Niche Shifts in Largemouth Bass.” Ecology 84: 1298–1310.

Prchalová, M. , Mrkvička T., Kubečka J., et al. 2010. “Fish Activity as Determined by Gillnet Catch: A Comparison of Two Reservoirs of Different Turbidity.” Fisheries Research 102: 291–296. 10.1016/J.FISHRES.2009.12.011. DOI

Qin, J. , Liu F., Schmidt B. V., Sun Z., Kong L., and Yan Y.. 2024. “Interpopulation Trophic Niches and Ontogenetic Shifts of a Mangrove Fish Predator.” Journal of Fish Biology 104: 365–373. 10.1111/jfb.15219. PubMed DOI

R Core Team . 2023. “R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.” R Foundation for Statistical Computing.

Ru, H. , Zhong L., Nian W., Li Y., Sheng Q., and Ni Z.. 2022. “Variations of Trophic Structure and Niche Space in Fish Community Along a Highly Regulated Subtropical Large River.” Ecology and Evolution 12: 1–15. 10.1002/ece3.9424. PubMed DOI PMC

Sánchez‐Hernández, J. 2019. “Causes and Consequences of Ontogenetic Dietary Shifts: A Global Synthesis Using Fish Models.” Biological Reviews 94: 539–554. 10.1111/brv.12468. PubMed DOI

Sánchez‐Hernández, J. 2024. “Ecology & Evolution Forum Climate‐Induced Shifts in Ontogenetic Niches Threaten Ecosystem.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 40: 224–227. 10.1016/j.tree.2024.11.018. PubMed DOI

Sánchez‐Hernández, J. , Prati S., Henriksen E. H., et al. 2022. “Exploring Temporal Patterns in Fish Feeding Ecology: Are Ontogenetic Dietary Shifts Stable Over Time?” Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 32: 1141–1155. 10.1007/s11160-022-09724-9. DOI

Schirmer, A. , Hoffmann J., Eccard J. A., and Dammhahn M.. 2020. “My Niche: Individual Spatial Niche Specialization Affects Within‐ and Between‐Species Interactions.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287: 20192211. 10.1098/rspb.2019.2211. PubMed DOI PMC

Schoenebeck, C. W. , Koupal K. D., Peterson B. C., et al. 2024. “Seasonal Prey Taxa and Size Selection and Drivers of Age‐0 Walleye Ontogenetic Diet Shifts.” Journal of Freshwater Ecology 39: 2426555. 10.1080/02705060.2024.2426555. DOI

Schoener, T. W. 1974. “Resource Partitioning in Ecological Communities: Research on How Similar Species Divide Resources Helps Reveal the Natural Regulation of Species Diversity.” American Naturalist 185: 27–39. PubMed

Šmejkal, M. , Ricard D., Prchalová M., Milan Ř., and Mu M.. 2015. “Biomass and Abundance Biases in European Standard Gillnet Sampling.” PLoS One 10: 1–15. 10.1371/journal.pone.0122437. PubMed DOI PMC

Šmejkal, M. , Thomas K., Šmejkalová Z., et al. 2024. “Isotopic Niches Reveal the Impact of Topmouth Gudgeon and Gibel Carp on Native Crucian Carp.” NeoBiota 93: 203–224. 10.3897/NEOBIOTA.93.119274. DOI

Souza, A. T. , Soukalová K., Děd V., et al. 2020. “Ontogenetic and Interpopulation Differences in Otolith Shape of the European Perch ( DOI

Specziár, A. 2005. “First‐Year Ontogenetic Diet Patterns in Two Coexisting DOI

Specziár, A. 2011. “Size‐Dependent Prey Selection in Piscivorous Pikeperch PubMed DOI

Stasko, A. D. , Johnston T. O. M. A., and Gunn J. M.. 2015. “Effects of Water Clarity and Other Environmental Factors on Trophic Niches of Two Sympatric Piscivores.” Freshwater Biology 60: 1459–1474. 10.1111/fwb.12581. DOI

Stephens, D. W. , and Krebs J. R.. 1986. Foraging Theory. Princeton University Press.

Sutela, T. , and Hyva P.. 2002. “Diet and Growth of Stocked and Wild 0+ Pikeperch,

Svanbäck, R. , and Bolnick D. I.. 2007. “Intraspecific Competition Drives Increased Resource Use Diversity Within a Natural Population.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274: 839–844. 10.1098/rspb.2006.0198. PubMed DOI PMC

Svanbäck, R. , Quevedo M., Olsson J., and Eklöv P.. 2015. “Individuals in Food Webs: The Relationships Between Trophic Position, Omnivory and Among‐Individual Diet Variation.” Oecologia 178: 103–114. 10.1007/s00442-014-3203-4. PubMed DOI PMC

Symonová, R. , Jůza T., Tesfaye M., et al. 2024. “Transition to Piscivory Seen Through Brain Transcriptomics in a Juvenile Percid Fish: Complex Interplay of Differential Gene Transcription, Alternative Splicing, and ncRNA Activity.” Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A‐Ecological and Integrative Physiology 343: 257–277. 10.1002/jez.2886. PubMed DOI PMC

Tesfaye, M. , Juza T., Šmejkal M., et al. unpublished manuscript. “Unveiling the Role of Biological and Environmental Factors and the Piscivory in the Recruitment Success of Pikeperch ( DOI

Tesfaye, M. , Jůza T., Šmejkal M., et al. 2024. “The Impact of Climatic Conditions and Food Availability on Bimodality Size Structure and Density of YOY Pikeperch ( DOI

Tesfaye, M. , Souza A. T., Soukalová K., et al. 2023. “Somatic Growth of Pikeperch ( DOI

Travis, J. , Bassar R. D., Coulson T., Reznick D., and Walsh M.. 2023. “Density‐Dependent Selection.” Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 54: 85–105. 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110321-055345. DOI

Trochine, C. , Risholt C., Schou M. O., et al. 2022. “Diet and Food Selection by Fish Larvae in Turbid and Clear Water Shallow Temperate Lakes.” Science of the Total Environment 804: 150050. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150050. PubMed DOI

Uphoff, C. S. , Schoenebeck C. W., Koupal K. D., Pope K. L., and Hoback W. W.. 2019. “Age‐0 Walleye DOI

Urbatzka, R. , Beeck P., Van Der Velde G., and Borcherding J.. 2008. “Alternative Use of Food Resources Causes Intra‐Cohort Variation in the Size Distribution of Young‐of‐the‐Year Perch ( DOI

van Densen, W. L. T. 1985. “Feeding Behaviour of Major 0 + Fish Species in a Shallow, Eutrophic Lake Tjeukemeer, Netherlands.” Journal of Applied Ichthyology 1: 49–70. 10.1111/j.1439-0426.1985.tb00412.x. DOI

van Densen, W. L. T. , Ligtvoet W., and Roozen R. W. M.. 1996. “Intra‐Cohort Variation in the Individual Size of Juvenile Pikeperch,

Vašek, M. , Eloranta A. P., Vejříková I., et al. 2018. “Stable Isotopes and Gut Contents Indicate Differential Resource Use by Coexisting Asp ( DOI

Vejřík, L. , Vejříková I., Blabolil P., et al. 2023. “Trophic Position of the Species and Site Trophic State Affect Diet Niche and Individual Specialization: From Apex Predator to Herbivore.” Biology 12: 1113. 10.3390/biology12081113. PubMed DOI PMC

Verreth, J. , and Kleyn K.. 1987. “The Effect of Biomanipulation of the Zooplankton on the Growth, Feeding and Survival of Pikeperch (

Wada, E. 2009. “Stable Delta(15)N and Delta(13)C Isotope Ratios in Aquatic Ecosystems.” Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences 85: 98–107. 10.2183/pjab/85.98. PubMed DOI PMC

Westrelin, S. , Balzani P., Haubrock P. J., and Santoul F.. 2023. “Interannual Variability in the Trophic Niche of Young‐of‐Year Fish Belonging to Four Piscivorous Species Coexisting in a Natural Lake.” Freshwater Biology 68: 487–501. 10.1111/fwb.14041. DOI

Wickham, H. , Averick M., Bryan J., et al. 2019. “Welcome to the Tidyverse.” Journal of Open Source Software 4: 1686. 10.21105/joss.01686. DOI

Woodland, R. J. , Rodríguez M. A., Magnan P., Glémet H., and Cabana G.. 2012. “Incorporating Temporally Dynamic Baselines in Isotopic Mixing Models.” Ecology 93: 131–144. 10.2307/23144028. PubMed DOI

Wu, L. , and Culver D. A.. 1992. “Ontogenetic Diet Shift in Lake Erie Age‐0 Yellow Perch (Perea Flavescens): A Size‐Related Response to Zooplankton Density.” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 49: 1932–1937. 10.1139/f92-214. DOI

Yoshioka, T. , Wada E., and Hayashi H.. 1994. “A Stable Isotope Study on Seasonal Food Web Dynamics in a Eutrophic Lake.” Ecology 75: 835–846. 10.2307/1941739. DOI

Zhang, F. , Reid K. B., and Nudds T. D.. 2017. “Relative Effects of Biotic and Abiotic Factors During Early Life History on Recruitment Dynamics: A Case Study.” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 74: 1125–1134. 10.1139/cjfas-2016-0155. DOI

Zhao, T. , Villéger S., Lek S., and Cucherousset J.. 2014. “High Intraspecific Variability in the Functional Niche of a Predator Is Associated With Ontogenetic Shift and Individual Specialization.” Ecology and Evolution 4: 4649–4657. 10.1002/ece3.1260. PubMed DOI PMC

Zorn, T. G. , Hayes D. B., Mccullough D. E., and Watson N. M.. 2020. “Crustacean Zooplankton Available for Larval Walleyes in a Lake Michigan Embayment.” Journal of Great Lakes Research 46: 1491–1499. 10.1016/j.jglr.2020.06.017. DOI