Whether we emphasize the notion of 'sign' or the notion of 'code', either way the main interest of biosemiotics and Code Biology is the same, and we argue that the idea of the lower threshold is what still unifies these two groups. Code Biology concentrates on the notion of code: living organisms are defined as code-users or code-makers, and so it may be called the 'lower coding threshold' in this case. The semiotic threshold on the other hand is a concept without a specific definition. There are many possible ways of understanding this term. In order to maintain the lower threshold as the unifying concept between Code Biology and biosemiotics, it is important to be very clear about where this threshold is located and how it is defined. We focus on establishing the lower semiotic threshold at protein biosynthesis, and we propose basing the semiotic understanding of the lowest life forms on the following criteria: arbitrariness, representation, repetition, historicity and self-replication. We also offer that this definition of the lower threshold need not include the notion of interpretation, in the hope that this newly specified common principle of the lower threshold be accepted as a way forward in the conversation between Code Biology and biosemiotics.

• Klíčová slova
• Arbitrariness, Code biology, Evolutionarity, Protein synthesis, Repetition, Representation, Semiosis, Semiotic threshold,
• MeSH
• genetický kód fyziologie   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• molekulární evoluce * MeSH
• robotika metody   trendy   MeSH
• systémová biologie metody   trendy   MeSH
• umělá inteligence trendy   MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• zvířata MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• přehledy MeSH

Computer-assisted orthopedic surgery (CAOS) systems have become one of the most important and challenging types of system in clinical orthopedics, as they enable precise treatment of musculoskeletal diseases, employing modern clinical navigation systems and surgical tools. This paper brings a comprehensive review of recent trends and possibilities of CAOS systems. There are three types of the surgical planning systems, including: systems based on the volumetric images (computer tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or ultrasound images), further systems utilize either 2D or 3D fluoroscopic images, and the last one utilizes the kinetic information about the joints and morphological information about the target bones. This complex review is focused on three fundamental aspects of CAOS systems: their essential components, types of CAOS systems, and mechanical tools used in CAOS systems. In this review, we also outline the possibilities for using ultrasound computer-assisted orthopedic surgery (UCAOS) systems as an alternative to conventionally used CAOS systems.

• Klíčová slova
• CAOS, fluoroscopic navigation, image-based navigation, imageless navigation, medical image processing,
• MeSH
• chirurgie s pomocí počítače trendy   MeSH
• lidé MeSH
• muskuloskeletální nemoci patofyziologie   chirurgie   MeSH
• ortopedické výkony trendy   MeSH
• počítačová rentgenová tomografie trendy   MeSH
• robotika trendy   MeSH
• zobrazování trojrozměrné trendy   MeSH
• Check Tag
• lidé MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• přehledy MeSH