Differences in transmission and ploidy between sex chromosomes and autosomes drive divergent evolutionary trajectories, with sex chromosomes generally evolving faster. Because sex-linked genes are transmitted less frequently, they are under less efficient selection. Conversely, exposure of recessive mutations on haploid sex chromosomes creates more efficient selection. In most systems, these effects occur simultaneously and are confounded. The fly families Sciaridae (fungus gnats) and Cecidomyiidae (gall midges) have X0 sex determination, but males transmit only maternally inherited chromosomes. This phenomenon results in equal transmission of the X and autosomes, allowing the effect of haploid selection to be studied in isolation. We discover that, unlike well-studied systems, X chromosomes diverge more slowly than autosomes in these flies. Using population genomic and expression data, we show that despite the X evolving more adaptively, stronger purifying selection explains slower divergence. Our findings demonstrate the utility of non-Mendelian inheritance systems for understanding fundamental evolutionary processes.

• MeSH
• X Chromosome * genetics   MeSH
• Diptera * genetics   MeSH
• Adaptation, Physiological * genetics   MeSH
• Genome, Insect MeSH
• Haploidy MeSH
• Evolution, Molecular MeSH
• Paternal Inheritance * genetics   MeSH
• Sex Determination Processes genetics   MeSH
• Selection, Genetic MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Male MeSH
• Female MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

Paternal genome elimination-a type of reproduction in which males inherit but fail to pass on their father's genome-evolved independently in 6-8 arthropod clades. Thousands of species, including several important for agriculture, reproduce via this mode of reproduction. While paternal genome elimination is well established in some of the clades, the evidence in globular springtails (Symphypleona) remains elusive, even though they represent the oldest and most species-rich clade putatively reproducing via paternal genome elimination. We sequenced genomic DNA from whole bodies of Allacma fusca males with high fractions (>27.5%) of sperm to conclusively confirm that all the sperm carry 1 parental haplotype only. Although it is suggestive that the single haplotype present in sperm is maternally inherited, definitive genetic proof of the parent of origin is still needed. The genomic approach we developed allows for the detection of genotypic differences between germline and soma in all species with sufficiently high fraction of germline in their bodies. This opens new opportunities for scans of reproductive modes in small organisms.

• Keywords
• evolutionary biology, genome, paternal genome elimination, reproduction, springtails,
• MeSH
• Arthropods * genetics   MeSH
• Genome MeSH
• Genomics MeSH
• Semen * MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Male MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't MeSH