This review presents the progress and some aspects achieved during recent years with cyclosporin sources, chemistry, biological activities, side effects, biosynthesis and metabolism. Although incomplete the results indicate future research trends and some white spots to be studied in the near future to afford unique insights into cell biology and to improve the search for similar and even more specific agents based on rational drug design.

• MeSH
• Cyclosporins chemistry   metabolism   pharmacology   MeSH
• Immunosuppressive Agents chemistry   metabolism   pharmacology   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Molecular Sequence Data MeSH
• Molecular Structure MeSH
• Amino Acid Sequence MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Cyclosporins MeSH
• Immunosuppressive Agents MeSH

Brefeldin A has been recently characterized to act as an inhibitor of intracellular protein export with profound effects on the structure and function of the Golgi apparatus in animal cells. Manifold activities of the antibiotic (under different names) published in the 1960's and 1970's are reviewed: effects on fungal growth and morphogenesis, inhibition of mitosis in plant cells, cytotoxicity, cancerostatic, antiviral and antinematodal activity and peculiar effects on DNA, RNA and protein synthesis in microbial and animal cells.

• MeSH
• Antifungal Agents pharmacology   MeSH
• Antinematodal Agents pharmacology   MeSH
• Antiviral Agents pharmacology   MeSH
• Brefeldin A MeSH
• Cyclopentanes pharmacology   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Antibiotics, Antineoplastic pharmacology   MeSH
• Plants drug effects   MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Antifungal Agents MeSH
• Antinematodal Agents MeSH
• Antiviral Agents MeSH
• Brefeldin A MeSH
• Cyclopentanes MeSH
• Antibiotics, Antineoplastic MeSH

• MeSH
• Antifungal Agents chemistry   isolation & purification   MeSH
• Cyclosporine chemistry   isolation & purification   MeSH
• Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy MeSH
• Organic Chemicals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Comparative Study MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Antifungal Agents MeSH
• Cyclosporine MeSH
• Organic Chemicals MeSH
• ramihyphin A MeSH Browser

Both natural and synthetic substances are conveniently used for studying metabolism, genetic aspects, morphogenesis of cell structures, life cycle and differentiation of fungi.

• MeSH
• Antifungal Agents pharmacology   MeSH
• Cell Differentiation MeSH
• Fungi drug effects   genetics   metabolism   MeSH
• Morphogenesis MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Antifungal Agents MeSH

Numerous antibodies with a known mechanism of action are utilized as possible means for studying morphogenesis and differentiation. Inhibitors of biosynthesis of nucleic acids and proteins, compounds intervening with the synthesis and/or function of cell walls and membranes or compounds influencing the energy metabolism are particularly useful. The use of antibiotics for studies of the life cycle of viruses, bacteria, fungi, myxomycetes, protozoa and algae is analyzed in the present communication. Certain aspects of morphogenesis and functions of mitochondria and plastids were clarified with the aid of antibiotics. Relationships between production of antibiotics and differentiation of their producers are discussed in the final part of the paper.

• MeSH
• Anti-Bacterial Agents biosynthesis   pharmacology   MeSH
• Bacteria growth & development   MeSH
• Chloroplasts physiology   MeSH
• Eukaryota growth & development   MeSH
• Fungi growth & development   MeSH
• Mitochondria physiology   MeSH
• Morphogenesis MeSH
• Organoids physiology   MeSH
• Spores, Fungal physiology   MeSH
• Viruses growth & development   MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Anti-Bacterial Agents MeSH

As a preliminary step in the study of dimorphism in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, the effects of cyanein and ramihyphin A were studied. These antibiotics have been reported to induce morphological changes in fungi. The results obtained suggest that ramihyphin A induce swelling of hyphae while partially inhibiting Y leads to M transformation with the production of an incipient and swollen mycelium. Cyanein did not affect the mycelial morphology as did ramihyphin A. However, the Y leads to M transformation was inhibited and, also, the M leads to Y transformation was blocked with the production of a few yeast cells which were not released from the mycelium.

• MeSH
• Antifungal Agents pharmacology   MeSH
• Cyclopentanes pharmacology   MeSH
• Fungi drug effects   MeSH
• Paracoccidioides drug effects   genetics   growth & development   MeSH
• Polymorphism, Genetic drug effects   MeSH
• Transformation, Genetic drug effects   MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Antifungal Agents MeSH
• Cyclopentanes MeSH

The effect of antibiotics and metabolic inhibitors on mycelial growth of Botrytis cinera was followed. Inhibitors of protein synthesis, chloramphenicol, erythromycin and tetracycline inhibit growth or sporulation of Botrytis cinera. Ethidium bromide, 5-fluorouracil, phenylethylalcohol and K 20 cause granulation, vacuolization and undulation of hyphase. 2,4-Dinitrophenol, boromycin, macrotetrolides, monensin, scopathricin and TX2 at subfungistatic concentrations induce intensive branching of hyphal tips i.e. at the site of synthesis of the cell wall. In older hyphase grown in the absence of the antibiotics the branching begins after their addition, particularly in the septum region. When comparing the results referred to here with those obtained previously and on the basis of literature data it may be assumed that the changes in polarity of growth of Botrytis cinerea might be caused primarily or secondarily by impairing membrane functions and formation of cell walls.

• MeSH
• Anti-Bacterial Agents pharmacology   MeSH
• Antimetabolites pharmacology   MeSH
• Cell Wall drug effects   MeSH
• Mitosporic Fungi drug effects   growth & development   MeSH
• Spores, Fungal growth & development   MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Anti-Bacterial Agents MeSH
• Antimetabolites MeSH

Colonial growth of Neurospora sitophila phenotypically induced by ramihyphin A is accompanied by marked changes in the contents of DNA, RNA and proteins in the mycelium, and in the relative proportion of hexoses in cell wall hydrolysates. The glucosamine/glucose ratio is also characteristic for colonial growth. X-ray analysis of cell walls showed that ramilhyphin A suppresses the crystalline arrangement of chitin in cell walls. A combination of microbiological, biochemical and physico-chemical methods yielded a general picture of the changes accompanying the colonial growth of Neurospora sitophila.

• MeSH
• Antifungal Agents pharmacology   MeSH
• Cell Wall metabolism   ultrastructure   MeSH
• Chitin biosynthesis   MeSH
• DNA biosynthesis   MeSH
• Fungal Proteins biosynthesis   MeSH
• Hexosamines biosynthesis   MeSH
• Hexoses biosynthesis   MeSH
• Crystallography MeSH
• Neurospora growth & development   metabolism   ultrastructure   MeSH
• RNA biosynthesis   MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Antifungal Agents MeSH
• Chitin MeSH
• DNA MeSH
• Fungal Proteins MeSH
• Hexosamines MeSH
• Hexoses MeSH
• RNA MeSH

Ramihyphin A at subfungistatic concentrations stimulates ramification of hyphae of filamentous fungi. Stimulation of terminal ramification of hyphae that can be observed particularly in phytopathogenic fungi is most frequent. Hyphae of Microsporon canis, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Coccidioides immitis and Histoplasma capsulatum ramify intensively laterally. Stimulation of the lateral ramification was observed in Monilia fructigena, Penicillium marneffei and Penicillium chrysogenum. The antibiotic induces also formation of vesicular structures in phytopathogens. Due to the substantial ramification of hyphae, both terminal and lateral, the growth of colonies is interrupted. The addition of the antibiotic to a growing colony of Botrytis cinerea induces dichotomic ramification of terminal hyphae after 3 h of growth. Lateral hyphae begin to grow later and further ramify dichotomically. Dense bundles of ramified hyphae are formed after 24 h due to the unbalanced ramification and the colony no longer increases its size.

• MeSH
• Antifungal Agents pharmacology   MeSH
• Pigments, Biological MeSH
• Species Specificity MeSH
• Fungi cytology   drug effects   growth & development   MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Antifungal Agents MeSH
• Pigments, Biological MeSH

Some antibiotics and synthetic inhibitors affect, in several ways, the life cycle of Neurospora crassa (germination of conidia leads to myceliar growth leads to formation of conidia). Bikaverin, cyanein, scopathricin and phenethyl alcohol retard the germination of conidia, without inhibiting it completely. 5-Fluorouracil, ramihyphin A and zygosporin A (cytochalasin D) do not inhibit the germination. Bikaverin brings about a thickening of the hyphae of growing mycelium. Ramihyphin A, cyanein, scopathricin and zygosporin A stimulate the ramification of hyphae while 5-fluorouracil and phenethyl alcohol do not affect the myceliar morphology apart from their inhibitory effect on growth. Actinomycin D, 5-fluorouracil, cycloheximide, ramihyphin A and partially also sodium iodoacetate inhibit to a different degree the photoinduced formation of conidia. The inhibition by 5-fluorouracil is very conspicuous when the agent is present during the photoinduction but considerably weaker when it is applied 2 h after the photoinduction.

• MeSH
• Antifungal Agents pharmacology   MeSH
• Cycloheximide pharmacology   MeSH
• Cyclopentanes pharmacology   MeSH
• Cytochalasins pharmacology   MeSH
• Dactinomycin pharmacology   MeSH
• Phenylethyl Alcohol pharmacology   MeSH
• Fluorouracil pharmacology   MeSH
• Iodoacetates pharmacology   MeSH
• Mutation MeSH
• Neurospora crassa drug effects   growth & development   MeSH
• Neurospora growth & development   MeSH
• Spores, Fungal drug effects   growth & development   MeSH
• Photic Stimulation MeSH
• Ultraviolet Rays MeSH
• Dose-Response Relationship, Drug MeSH
• Xanthenes pharmacology   MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Names of Substances
• Antifungal Agents MeSH
• Cycloheximide MeSH
• Cyclopentanes MeSH
• Cytochalasins MeSH
• Dactinomycin MeSH
• Phenylethyl Alcohol MeSH
• Fluorouracil MeSH
• Iodoacetates MeSH
• Xanthenes MeSH