Studies examining event-related potentials (ERP) in patients affected by attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have found considerable evidence of reduced target P300 amplitude across different perceptual modalities. P300 amplitude has been related to attention-driven context comparison and resource allocation processes. Altered P300 amplitude in ADHD can be reasonably assumed to be related to ADHD typical cognitive performance deficits. Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) can increase the amplitude of endogenous brain oscillations. Because ERP components can be viewed as event-related oscillations (EROs), with P300 translating into the delta (0-4 Hz) and theta (4-8 Hz) frequency range, an increase of delta and theta ERO amplitudes by tACS should result in an increase of P300 amplitudes in ADHD patients. In this pilot study, 18 adult ADHD patients (7 female) performed three consecutive blocks of a visual oddball task while the electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded. Patients received either 20 min of tACS or sham stimulation at a stimulation intensity of 1 mA. Individual stimulation frequency was determined using a time-frequency decomposition of the P300. Our preliminary results demonstrate a significant increase in P300 amplitude in the stimulation group which was accompanied by a decrease in omission errors pre-to-post tACS. However, studies including larger sample sizes are advised.

Department of Complex Systems Institute of Computer Science Czech Academy of Sciences Prague Czech Republic

Department of Physiology 2nd Faculty of Medicine Charles University Prague Czech Republic

Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University of Bonn Bonn Germany

Experimental Psychology Lab Department of Psychology European Medical School Cluster for Excellence Hearing for All Carl Von Ossietzky University Oldenburg Ammerländer Heerstr 114 118 26129 Oldenburg Germany

Medical Campus University of Oldenburg School of Medicine and Health Sciences Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University Hospital Karl Jaspers Klinik Bad Zwischenahn Germany

Research Center Neurosensory Science Carl Von Ossietzky University Oldenburg Germany

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Ahn S, Mellin JM, Alagapan S, Alexander ML, Gilmore JH, Jarskog LF, Fröhlich F. Targeting reduced neural oscillations in patients with schizophrenia by transcranial alternating current stimulation. NeuroImage. 2019;186:126–136. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.10.056. PubMed DOI PMC

Alexander ML, Alagapan S, Lugo CE, Mellin JM, Lustenberger C, Rubinow DR, Fröhlich F. Double-blind, randomized pilot clinical trial targeting alpha oscillations with transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) Transl Psychiatry. 2019;9:106. doi: 10.1038/s41398-019-0439-0. PubMed DOI PMC

Antal A, Boros K, Poreisz C, Chaieb L, Terney D, Paulus W. Comparatively weak after-effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) on cortical excitability in humans. Brain Stimul. 2008;1:97–105. doi: 10.1016/j.brs.2007.10.001. PubMed DOI

Antal A, Alekseichuk I, Bikson M, et al. Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation; safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines. Clin Neurophysiol. 2017;128:1774–1809. doi: 10.1016/j.clinph.2017.06.001. PubMed DOI PMC

Antonenko D, Faxel M, Grittner U, Lavidor M, Flöel A. Effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation on cognitive functions in healthy young and older adults. Neural Plasticity. 2016;2016:1–13. doi: 10.1155/2016/4274127. PubMed DOI PMC

Bandeira ID, Guimarães RSQ, Jagersbacher JG, Barretto TL, de Jesus-Silva JR, Santos SN, Argollo N, Lucena R. Transcranial direct current stimulation in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) J Child Neurol. 2016;31:918–924. doi: 10.1177/0883073816630083. PubMed DOI

Başar E. Brain function and oscillations. Springer, Berlin: Principles and approaches; 1998.

Başar E, Başar-Eroglu C, Karakaş S, Schürmann M. Are cognitive processes manifested in event-related gamma, alpha, theta and delta oscillations in the EEG? Neurosci Lett. 1999;259:165–168. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3940(98)00934-3. PubMed DOI

Başar-Eroglu C, Başar E, Demiralp T, Schürmann M. P300-response; Possible psychophysiological correlates in delta and theta frequency channels frequency channels. Int J Psychophysiol. 1992;13:161–179. doi: 10.1016/0167-8760(92)90055-G. PubMed DOI

Başar-Eroglu C, Demiralp T, Schürmann M, Başar E. Topological distribution of oddball ‘P300’ responses. Int J Psychophysiol. 2001;39:213–220. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8760(00)00142-2. PubMed DOI

Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y. Controlling the false discovery rate; A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J Roy Stat Soc. 1995;57:289–300. doi: 10.2307/2346101. DOI

Bezdjian S, Baker LA, Lozano DI, Raine A. Assessing inattention and impulsivity in children during the Go/NoGo task. Br J Dev Psychol. 2009;27:365–383. doi: 10.1348/026151008X314919. PubMed DOI PMC

Bledowski C, Prvulovic D, Hoechstetter K, Scherg M, Wibral M, Goebel R, Linden DE. Localizing P300 generators in visual target and distractor processing: a combined event-related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J Neurosci. 2004;24(42):9353–9360. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1897-04.2004. PubMed DOI PMC

Bramon E. Meta-analysis of the P300 and P50 waveforms in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 2004;70:315–329. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2004.01.004. PubMed DOI

Breitling C, Zaehle T, Dannhauer M, Bonath B, Tegelbeckers J, Flechtner H-H, Krauel K. Improving interference control in ADHD patients with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) Front Cell Neurosci. 2016;10:1360. doi: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00072. PubMed DOI PMC

Brunoni AR, Amadera J, Berbel B, Volz MS, Rizzerio BG, Fregni F. A systematic review on reporting and assessment of adverse effects associated with transcranial direct current stimulation. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011;14:1133–1145. doi: 10.1017/S1461145710001690. PubMed DOI

Cosmo C, Baptista AF, de Araújo AN, do Rosário RS, Miranda JGV, Montoya P, de Sena EP, Bearden CE. A randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trial of transcranial direct current stimulation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0135371. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135371. PubMed DOI PMC

Delorme A, Makeig S. EEGLAB; An open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis. J Neurosci Methods. 2004;134:9–21. doi: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009. PubMed DOI

Demiralp T, Yordanova J, Kolev V, Ademoglu A, Devrim M, Samar VJ. Time–frequency analysis of single-sweep event-related potentials by means of fast wavelet transform. Brain Lang. 1999;66:129–145. doi: 10.1006/brln.1998.2028. PubMed DOI

Demiralp T, Ademoglu A, Istefanopulos Y, Başar-Eroglu C, Başar E. Wavelet analysis of oddball P300. Int J Psychophysiol. 2001;39:221–227. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8760(00)00143-4. PubMed DOI

Demirtas-Tatlidede A, Vahabzadeh-Hagh AM, Pascual-Leone A. Can noninvasive brain stimulation enhance cognition in neuropsychiatric disorders? Neuropharmacology. 2013;64:566–578. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.06.020. PubMed DOI PMC

Derefinko KJ, Adams ZW, Milich R, Fillmore MT, Lorch EP, Lynam DR. Response style differences in the inattentive and combined subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2008;36:745–758. doi: 10.1007/s10802-007-9207-3. PubMed DOI

Donchin E, Coles MGH. Is the P300 component a manifestation of context updating? Behav Brain Sci. 1988;11:357. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X00058027. DOI

Ebert D, Krause J, Roth-Sackenheim C. ADHD in adulthood—guidelines based on expert consensus with DGPPN support [ADHS im Erwachsenenalter—Leitlinien auf der Basis eines Expertkonsensus mit Unterstutzung der DGPPN] Der Nervenarzt. 2003;74:939–946. PubMed

Fried M, Tsitsiashvili E, Bonneh YS, Sterkin A, Wygnanski-Jaffe T, Epstein T, Polat U. ADHD subjects fail to suppress eye blinks and microsaccades while anticipating visual stimuli but recover with medication. Vision Res. 2014;101:62–72. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2014.05.004. PubMed DOI

Fröhlich F, Sellers KK, Cordle AL. Targeting the neurophysiology of cognitive systems with transcranial alternating current stimulation. Expert Rev Neurother. 2015;15:145–167. doi: 10.1586/14737175.2015.992782. PubMed DOI PMC

Fydrich T, Renneberg B, Schmitz B, Wittchen H-U. Interviewheft; Achse II: Persönlichkeitsstörungen. Göttingen: Hogrefe; 1997.

Gow RV, Rubia K, Taylor E, Vallée-Tourangeau F, Matsudaira T, Ibrahimovic A, Sumich A. Abnormal centroparietal ERP response in predominantly medication-naive adolescent boys With ADHD during both response inhibition and execution. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2012;29:181–189. doi: 10.1097/WNP.0b013e31824e1025. PubMed DOI

Grane VA, Brunner JF, Endestad T, Aasen IES, Kropotov J, Knight RT, Solbakk A-K, Ahveninen J. ERP correlates of proactive and reactive cognitive control in treatment-naïve adult ADHD. PLoS ONE. 2016;11:e0159833. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159833. PubMed DOI PMC

Güntekin B, Başar E. Review of evoked and event-related delta responses in the human brain. Int J Psychophysiol. 2016;103:43–52. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.02.001. PubMed DOI

Hasler R, Perroud N, Meziane HB, Herrmann F, Prada P, Giannakopoulos P, Deiber M-P. Attention-related EEG markers in adult ADHD. Neuropsychologia. 2016;87:120–133. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.05.008. PubMed DOI

Helfrich RF, Schneider TR, Rach S, Trautmann-Lengsfeld SA, Engel AK, Herrmann CS. Entrainment of brain oscillations by transcranial alternating current stimulation. Curr Biol. 2014;24:333–339. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.12.041. PubMed DOI

Herrmann CS, Rach S, Neuling T, Strüber D. Transcranial alternating current stimulation; a review of the underlying mechanisms and modulation of cognitive processes. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013 doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00279. PubMed DOI PMC

Herrmann CS, Rach S, Vosskuhl J, Strüber D. Time–frequency analysis of event-related potentials; a brief tutorial. Brain Topogr. 2014;27:438–450. doi: 10.1007/s10548-013-0327-5. PubMed DOI

Hervey AS, Epstein JN, Curry JF. Neuropsychology of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology. 2004;18:485–503. doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.485. PubMed DOI

Huang Y, Datta A, Bikson M, Parra LC (2017) Realistic olumetric-approach to simulate transcranial electric stimulation—ROAST—a fully automated open-source pipeline. bioRxiv. 10.1101/217331 PubMed DOI PMC

Itagaki S, Yabe H, Mori Y, Ishikawa H, Takanashi Y, Niwa S-i. Event-related potentials in patients with adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder versus schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 2011;189:288–291. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2011.03.005. PubMed DOI

Johnstone SJ, Barry RJ. Auditory event-related potentials to a two-tone discrimination paradigm in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res. 1996;64:179–192. doi: 10.1016/S0165-1781(96)02893-4. PubMed DOI

Jonkman LM, van Melis JJM, Kemner C, Markus CR. Methylphenidate improves deficient error evaluation in children with ADHD; an event-related brain potential study. Biol Psychol. 2007;76:217–229. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.08.004. PubMed DOI

Kar K, Krekelberg B. Transcranial alternating current stimulation attenuates visual motion adaptation. J Neurosci. 2014;34:7334–7340. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5248-13.2014. PubMed DOI PMC

Kasten FH, Dowsett J, Herrmann CS. Sustained aftereffect of α-tACS lasts up to 70 min after stimulation. Front Hum Neurosci. 2016;10:11262. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00245. PubMed DOI PMC

Kaustio O, Partanen J, Valkonen-Korhonen M, Viinamäki H, Lehtonen J. Affective and psychotic symptoms relate to different types of P300 alteration in depressive disorder. J Affect Disord. 2002;71:43–50. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0327(01)00410-4. PubMed DOI

Kok A. On the utility of P3 amplitude as a measure of processing capacity. Psychophysiol. 2001;38:557–577. doi: 10.1017/S0048577201990559. PubMed DOI

Kolev V, Demiralp T, Yordanova J, Ademoglu A, Isoglu-Alkaç Ü. Time–frequency analysis reveals multiple functional components during oddball P300. NeuroReport. 1997;8:2061–2065. doi: 10.1097/00001756-199705260-00050. PubMed DOI

Lee M-S, Lee S-H, Moon E-O, Moon Y-J, Kim S, Kim S-H, Jung I-K. Neuropsychological correlates of the P300 in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2013;40:62–69. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.08.009. PubMed DOI

Linden DEJ. The P300; where in the brain is it produced and what does it tell us? Neuroscientist. 2016;11:563–576. doi: 10.1177/1073858405280524. PubMed DOI

Mellin JM, Alagapan S, Lustenberger C, Lugo CE, Alexander ML, Gilmore JH, Jarskog LF, Fröhlich F. Randomized trial of transcranial alternating current stimulation for treatment of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Eur Psychiatry. 2018;51:25–33. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.01.004. PubMed DOI PMC

Minhas P, Bansal V, Patel J, Ho JS, Diaz J, Datta A, Bikson M. Electrodes for high-definition transcutaneous DC stimulation for applications in drug delivery and electrotherapy, including tDCS. J Neurosci Methods. 2010;190:188–197. doi: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2010.05.007. PubMed DOI PMC

Munz MT, Prehn-Kristensen A, Thielking F, Mölle M, Göder R, Baving L. Slow oscillating transcranial direct current stimulation during non-rapid eye movement sleep improves behavioral inhibition in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Front Cell Neurosci. 2015 doi: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00307. PubMed DOI PMC

Neuling T, Rach S, Herrmann CS. Orchestrating neuronal networks; sustained after-effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation depend upon brain states. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013 doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00161. PubMed DOI PMC

Neuling T, Ruhnau P, Fuscà M, Demarchi G, Herrmann CS, Weisz N. Friends, not foes; Magnetoencephalography as a tool to uncover brain dynamics during transcranial alternating current stimulation. NeuroImage. 2015;118:406–413. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.06.026. PubMed DOI PMC

Nitsche MA, Paulus W (2007) Transkranielle Gleichstromstimulation. In: Siebner HR, Ziemann U (eds) Das TMS-Buch: Handbuch der transkraniellen Magnetstimulation. Springer, Berlin, S533–S542

Nitsche MA, Cohen LG, Wassermann EM, Priori A, Lang N, Antal A, Paulus W, Hummel F, Boggio PS, Fregni F, Pascual-Leone A. Transcranial direct current stimulation; state of the art 2008. Brain Stimul. 2008;1:206–223. doi: 10.1016/j.brs.2008.06.004. PubMed DOI

Ochoa CJ, Polich J. P300 and blink instructions. Clin Neurophysiol. 2000;111:93–98. doi: 10.1016/S1388-2457(99)00209-6. PubMed DOI

Palm U, Segmiller FM, Epple AN, Freisleder F-J, Koutsouleris N, Schulte-Körne G, Padberg F. Transcranial direct current stimulation in children and adolescents; a comprehensive review. J Neural Transm. 2016;123:1219–1234. doi: 10.1007/s00702-016-1572-z. PubMed DOI

Paul-Jordanov I, Bechtold M, Gawrilow C. Methylphenidate and if-then plans are comparable in modulating the P300 and increasing response inhibition in children with ADHD. ADHD Atten Def Hyp Disord. 2010;2:115–126. doi: 10.1007/s12402-010-0028-9. PubMed DOI

Polanía R, Nitsche MA, Korman C, Batsikadze G, Paulus W. The importance of timing in segregated theta phase-coupling for cognitive performance. Curr Biol. 2012;22:1314–1318. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2012.05.021. PubMed DOI

Polich J. Detection of change; event-related potential and fMRI findings. Boston: Springer; 2003.

Polich J. Updating P300; an integrative theory of P3a and P3b. Clin Neurophysiol. 2007;118:2128–2148. doi: 10.1016/j.clinph.2007.04.019. PubMed DOI PMC

Polich J, Criado JR. Neuropsychology and neuropharmacology of P3a and P3b. Int J Psychophysiol. 2006;60:172–185. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2005.12.012. PubMed DOI

Popp F, Dallmer-Zerbe I, Philipsen A, Herrmann CS. Challenges of P300 modulation using transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) Front. Psychol. 2019;10:476. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00476. PubMed DOI PMC

Prehn-Kristensen A, Munz MT, Göder R, Wilhelm I, Korr K, Vahl W, Wiesner CD, Baving L. Transcranial oscillatory direct current stimulation during sleep improves declarative memory consolidation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder to a level comparable to healthy controls. Brain Stimul. 2014;7:793–799. doi: 10.1016/j.brs.2014.07.036. PubMed DOI

Quian Quiroga R, Rosso OA, Başar E, Schrmann M. Wavelet entropy in event-related potentials; a new method shows ordering of EEG oscillations. Biol Cybern. 2001;84:291–299. doi: 10.1007/s004220000212. PubMed DOI

Retz-Junginger P, Retz W, Blocher D, Weijers H-G, Trott GE, Wender PH, Rössler M. Wender Utah Rating Scale (WURS-k) Die deutsche Kurzform zur retrospektiven Erfassung des hyperkinetischen Syndroms bei Erwachsenen. Nervenarzt. 2002;73:830–838. doi: 10.1007/s00115-001-1215-x. PubMed DOI

Rösler M, Retz W, Retz-Junginger P, Thome J, Supprian T, Nissen T, Stieglitz R-D, Blocher D, Hengesch G, Trott GE. Instrumente zur Diagnostik der Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivittsstrung (ADHS) im Erwachsenenalter. Nervenarzt. 2004 doi: 10.1007/s00115-003-1622-2. PubMed DOI

Rubio B, Boes AD, Laganiere S, Rotenberg A, Jeurissen D, Pascual-Leone A. Noninvasive brain stimulation in pediatric attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) J Child Neurol. 2016;31:784–796. doi: 10.1177/0883073815615672. PubMed DOI PMC

Schachar RJ, Chen S, Logan GD, Ornstein TJ, Crosbie J, Ickowicz A, Pakulak A. Evidence for an error monitoring deficit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2004;32:285–293. doi: 10.1023/B:JACP.0000026142.11217.f2. PubMed DOI

Schoenberg PLA, Hepark S, Kan CC, Barendregt HP, Buitelaar JK, Speckens AEM. Effects of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy on neurophysiological correlates of performance monitoring in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clin Neurophysiol. 2014;125:1407–1416. doi: 10.1016/j.clinph.2013.11.031. PubMed DOI

Schürmann M, Başar-Eroglu C, Kolev V, Başar E. A new metric for analyzing single-trial event-related potentials (ERPs); application to human visual P300 delta response. Neurosci Lett. 1995;197:167–170. doi: 10.1016/0304-3940(95)11912-G. PubMed DOI

Senderecka M, Grabowska A, Szewczyk J, Gerc K, Chmylak R. Response inhibition of children with ADHD in the stop-signal task; an event-related potential study. Int J Psychophysiol. 2012;85:93–105. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.05.007. PubMed DOI

Soff C, Sotnikova A, Christiansen H, Becker K, Siniatchkin M. Transcranial direct current stimulation improves clinical symptoms in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Neural Transm. 2017;124:133–144. doi: 10.1007/s00702-016-1646-y. PubMed DOI

Soltaninejad Z, Nejati V, Ekhtiari H. Effect of anodal and cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation on DLPFC on modulation of inhibitory control in ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2015;23:325–332. doi: 10.1177/1087054715618792. PubMed DOI

Strandburg RJ, Marsh JT, Brown WS, Asarnow RF, Higa J, Harper R, Guthrie D. Continuous-processing-related event-related potentials in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 1996;40:964–980. doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(95)00545-5. PubMed DOI

Szuromi B, Czobor P, Komlósi S, Bitter I. P300 deficits in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; a meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2011;41:1529–1538. doi: 10.1017/S0033291710001996. PubMed DOI

Tamm L, Narad ME, Antonini TN, O’Brien KM, Hawk LW, Epstein JN. Reaction time variability in ADHD; a review. Neurotherapeutics. 2012;9:500–508. doi: 10.1007/s13311-012-0138-5. PubMed DOI PMC

Thut G, Schyns PG, Gross J. Entrainment of perceptually relevant brain oscillations by non-invasive rhythmic stimulation of the human brain. Front Psychol. 2011 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00170. PubMed DOI PMC

Tsai M-L, Hung K-L, Lu H-H. Auditory event-related potentials in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Pediatr Neonatol. 2012;53:118–124. doi: 10.1016/j.pedneo.2012.01.009. PubMed DOI

Uebel H, Albrecht B, Asherson P, Börger NA, Butler L, Chen W, Christiansen H, Heise A, Kuntsi J, Schäfer U, Andreou P, Manor I, Marco R, Miranda A, Mulligan A, Oades RD, van der Meere J, Faraone SV, Rothenberger A, Banaschewski T. Performance variability, impulsivity errors and the impact of incentives as gender-independent endophenotypes for ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2010;51:210–218. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02139.x. PubMed DOI PMC

Vossen A, Gross J, Thut G. Alpha power increase after transcranial alternating current stimulation at alpha frequency (α-tACS) reflects plastic changes rather than entrainment. Brain Stimul. 2015;8:499–508. doi: 10.1016/j.brs.2014.12.004. PubMed DOI PMC

Wilens TE, Bukstein O, Brams M, Cutler AJ, Childress A, Rugino T, Lyne A, Grannis K, Youcha S. A controlled trial of extended-release guanfacine and psychostimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012;51:74–85.e2. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2011.10.012. PubMed DOI

Wittchen H-U, Fydrich T. Strukturiertes Klinisches Interview für DSM-IV (SKID-I und SKID-II) Göttingen: Hogrefe; 1997.

Woltering S, Liu Z, Rokeach A, Tannock R. Neurophysiological differences in inhibitory control between adults with ADHD and their peers. Neuropsychologia. 2013;51:1888–1895. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.06.023. PubMed DOI

Zaehle T, Rach S, Herrmann CS, Aleman A. Transcranial alternating current stimulation enhances individual alpha activity in human EEG. PLoS ONE. 2010;5:e13766. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013766. PubMed DOI PMC

Zetterqvist J, Asherson P, Halldner L, Långström N, Larsson H. Stimulant and non-stimulant attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder drug use; total population study of trends and discontinuation patterns 2006–2009. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2013;128:70–77. doi: 10.1111/acps.12004. PubMed DOI

Zillessen KE, Scheuerpflug P, Fallgatter AJ, Strik WK, Warnke A. Changes of the brain electrical fields during the continuous performance test in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder-boys depending on methylphenidate medication. Clin Neurophysiol. 2001;112:1166–1173. doi: 10.1016/S1388-2457(01)00535-1. PubMed DOI

Transcranial alternating current stimulation in affecting cognitive impairment in psychiatric disorders: a review

Working Memory and Transcranial-Alternating Current Stimulation-State of the Art: Findings, Missing, and Challenges

Working Memory and Cross-Frequency Coupling of Neuronal Oscillations