Recent decades have been marked by unprecendented environmental changes which threaten the integrity of freshwater systems and their ecological value. Although most of these changes can be attributed to human activities, disentagling natural and anthropogenic drivers remains a challenge. In this study, surface sediments from Lake Ighiel, a mid-altitude site in the Carpathian Mts (Romania) were investigated following high-resolution sedimentological, geochemical, environmental magnetic and diatom analyses supported by historical cartographic and documentary evidence. Our results suggest that between 1920 and 1960 the study area experienced no significant anthropogenic impact. An excellent correspondence is observed between lake proxy responses (e.g., growth of submerged macrophytes, high detrital input, shifts in diatom assemblages) and parameters tracking natural hydroclimate variability (e.g., temperature, NAO). This highlights a dominant natural hydroclimatic control on the lacustrine system. From 1960 however, the depositional regime shifted markedly from laminated to homogenous clays; since then geochemical and magnetic data document a trend of significant (and on-going) subsurface erosion across the catchment. This is paralleled by a shift in lake ecosystem conditions denoting a strong response to an intensified anthropogenic impact, mainly through forestry. An increase in detrital input and marked changes in the diatom community are observed over the last three decades, alongside accelerated sedimentation rates following enhanced grazing and deforestation in the catchment. Recent shifts in diatom assemblages may also reflect forcing from atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition, a key recent drive of diatom community turnover in mountain lakes. In general, enhanced human pressure alongside intermittent hydroclimate forcing drastically altered the landscape around Lake Ighiel and thus, the sedimentation regime and the ecosystem's health. However, paleoenvironmental signals tracking natural hydroclimate variability are also clearly discernible in the proxy data. Our work illustrates the complex link between the drivers of catchment-scale impacts on one hand, and lake proxy responses on the other, highlighting the importance of an integrated historical and palaeolimnological approach to better assess lake system changes.

Centre for Ecological Research GINOP Sustainable Ecosystems Group Tihany Hungary

Department of Atmospheric Physics Faculty of Mathematics and Physics Charles University Praga Czech Republic

Department of Botany Hungarian Natural History Museum Budapest Hungary

Department of Environmental Sciences Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania Cluj Napoca Romania

EPOC UMR 5805 Université de Bordeaux Pessac France

Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering Babeş Bolyai University Cluj Napoca Romania

Faculty of Water Sciences National University of Public Service Baja Hungary

Interdisciplinary Research Institute on Bio Nano Science Babes Bolyai University Cluj Napoca Romania

MTA Centre for Ecological Research Danube Research Institute Budapest Hungary

MTA MTM ELTE Research Group for Paleontology Department of Environmental and Landscape Geography Eötvös Lorand University Budapest Hungary

Romanian Academy Institute of Speleology Cluj Napoca Romania

Romanian Young Academy Research Institute of the University of Bucharest University of Bucharest Bucharest Romania

School of Science Engineering and Environment University of Salford Salford United Kingdom

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PLoS One. 2021 Mar 2;16(3):e0248253. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248253. PubMed

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