Considering the current agreement on the significance of executive functions, there is growing interest in determining factors that contribute to the development of these skills, especially during the preschool period. Although multiple studies have been focusing on links between physical activity, physical fitness and executive functions, this topic was more investigated in schoolchildren and adults than in preschoolers. The aim of the current study was to identify different levels of physical fitness among pre-schoolers, followed by an analysis of differences in their executive functions. Participants were 261 5-6-years old children. Inhibitory control and working memory were positively linked with physical fitness. Cognitive flexibility was not associated with physical fitness. The research findings are considered from neuropsychological grounds, Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, and the cultural-historical approach.

Department of Psychology Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow Russia

Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Charles University Prague Czechia

Institute of Psychology and Education Kazan Federal University Kazan Russia

Psychological Institute of Russian Academy of Education Moscow Russia

Zobrazit více v PubMed

Almazova O. V., Bukhalenkova D. A., Gavrilova M. N., Veraksa A. N., Yakupova V. A. (2020). Development of Executive Functions in Preschool Children (5–7 years), 2nd Edn. Moscow: Mozaica-Sintez Publishers (M.).

Arvidsson D., Johannesson E., Andersen L. B., Karlsson M., Wollmer P., Thorsson O., et al. (2018). A longitudinal analysis of the relationships of physical activity and body fat with nerve growth factor and brain-derived neural factor in children. J. Phys. Act. Health 15 620–625. 10.1123/jpah.2017-0483 PubMed DOI

Bames J., Behrens T. K., Benden M. E., Biddle S., Bond D., Brassard P., et al. (2012). Letter to the editor: standardized use of the terms “sedentary” and “sedentary behaviours”. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 37 540–542. 10.1139/h2012-024 PubMed DOI

Barde Y. A. (1989). Trophic factors and neuronal survival. Neuron 2 1525–1534. 10.1016/0896-6273(89)90040-8 PubMed DOI

Bermejo-Cantarero A., Alvarez-Bueno C., Martinez-Vizcaino V., Garcia-Hermoso A., Torres-Costoso A. I., Sanchez-Lopez M. (2017). Association between physical activity, sedentary behavior, and fitness with health-related quality of life in healthy children and adolescents: a protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine 96:e6407. 10.1097/md.0000000000006407 PubMed DOI PMC

Best J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Dev. Rev. 30 331–351. PubMed PMC

Best J. R., Miller P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Dev. 81 1641–1660. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x PubMed DOI PMC

Biddle S. J., Asare M. (2011). Physical activity and mental health in children and adolescents: a review of reviews. Br. J. Sports Med. 45 886–895. 10.1136/bjsports-2011-090185 PubMed DOI

Blair C., Razza R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Dev. 78 647–663. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x PubMed DOI

Blankson A. N., O’Brien M., Leerkes E. M., Marcovitch S., Calkins S. D. (2012). Differentiating processes of control and understanding in the early development of emotion and cognition. Soc. Dev. 21 1–20. 10.1111/j.1467-9507.2011.00593.x PubMed DOI PMC

Bouchard C. E., Shephard R. J., Stephens T. E. (1994). “Physical activity, fitness, and health: International proceedings and consensus statement,” in Proceedings of the International Consensus Symposium on Physical Activity, Fitness, and Health, 2nd May 1992. Toronto, ON: Human Kinetics Publishers.

Carson V., Tremblay M. S., Chaput J. P., Chastin S. F. (2016). Associations between sleep duration, sedentary time, physical activity, and health indicators among Canadian children and youth using compositional analyses. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 41 294–302. PubMed

Caspersen C. J., Powell K. E., Christenson G. M. (1985). Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Rep. 100:126. PubMed PMC

Chaddock-Heyman L., Erickson K. I., Kienzler C., Drollette E. S., Raine L. B., Kao S. C., et al. (2018). Physical activity increases white matter microstructure in children. Front. Neurosci. 12:950. 10.3389/fnins.2018.00950 PubMed DOI PMC

Chang Y. K., Labban J. D., Gapin J., I, Etnier J. L. (2012). The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis. Brain Res. 1453 87–101. 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.02.068 PubMed DOI

Cheie L., Veraksa A., Zinchenko Y., Gorovaya A., Visu-Petra L. (2015). A cross-cultural investigation of inhibitory control, generative fluency, and anxiety symptoms in Romanian and Russian preschoolers. Child Neuropsychol. 21 121–149. 10.1080/09297049.2013.879111 PubMed DOI

Cho H. C., Kim J., Kim S., Son Y. H., Lee N., Jung S. H. (2012). The concentrations of serum, plasma and platelet BDNF are all increased by treadmill VO2max performance in healthy college men. Neurosci. Lett. 519 78–83. 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.05.025 PubMed DOI

Colcombe S., Kramer A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study. Psychol. Sci. 14 125–130. 10.1111/1467-9280.t01-1-01430 PubMed DOI

Corbin C. B., Le Masurier G. C. (2014). Fitness for Life. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Council of Europe (1988). EUROFIT: Handbook for the EUROFIT Tests of Physical Fitness. Rome: Council of Europe.

Davis C. L., Tomporowski P. D., Boyle C. A., Waller J. L., Miller P. H., Naglieri J. A., et al. (2007). Effects of aerobic exercise on overweight children’s cognitive functioning: a randomized controlled trial. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 78 510–519. 10.1080/02701367.2007.10599450 PubMed DOI PMC

de Assis G. G., Almondes K. M. D. (2017). Exercise-dependent BDNF as a modulatory factor for the executive processing of individuals in course of cognitive decline. a systematic review. Front. Psychol. 8:584. 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00584 PubMed DOI PMC

de Greeff J. W., Bosker R. J., Oosterlaan J., Visscher C., Hartman E. (2018). Effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children: a meta-analysis. J. Sci. Med. Sport 21 501–507. 10.1016/j.jsams.2017.09.595 PubMed DOI

DeBate R. D., Pettee Gabriel K., Zwald M., Huberty J., Zhang Y. (2009). Changes in psychosocial factors and physical activity frequency among third- to eighth-grade girls who participated in a developmentally focused youth sport program: a preliminary study. J. Sch. Health 79 474–484. 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00437.x PubMed DOI

Diamond A. (2000). Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Child Dev. 71 44–56. 10.1111/1467-8624.00117 PubMed DOI

Diamond A. (2013). Executive functions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 64 135–168. 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 PubMed DOI PMC

Diamond A., Ling D. S. (2016). Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 18 34–48. 10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005 PubMed DOI PMC

Dumith S. C., Hallal P. C., Reis R. S., Kohl H. W., III (2011). Worldwide prevalence of physical inactivity and its association with human development index in 76 countries. Prev. Med. 53 24–28. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.02.017 PubMed DOI

Dwyer T., Sallis J. F., Blizzard L., Lazarus R., Dean K. (2001). Relation of academic performance to physical activity and fitness in children. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 13 225–237. 10.1123/pes.13.3.225 DOI

Ellemberg D., St-Louis-Deschênes M. (2010). The effect of acute physical exercise on cognitive function during development. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 11 122–126. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.09.006 DOI

Fedewa A. L., Ahn S. (2011). The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on children’s achievement and cognitive outcomes: a meta-analysis. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 82 521–535. 10.1080/02701367.2011.10599785 PubMed DOI

Gagne J. R. (2017). Self-control in childhood: a synthesis of perspectives and focus on early development. Child Dev. Perspect. 11 127–132. 10.1111/cdep.12223 DOI

García-Hermoso A., Hormazábal-Aguayo I., Fernández-Vergara O., Izquierdo M., Alonso-Martínez A., Bonilla-Vargas K. J., et al. (2020). Physical fitness components in relation to attention capacity in Latin American youth with overweight and obesity. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 30 1188–1193. 10.1111/sms.13649 PubMed DOI

Garon N., Bryson S. E., Smith I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: a review using an integrative framework. Psychol. Bull. 134 31–60. 10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31 PubMed DOI

Ghafori R., Heirani A., Aghadsi M. T. (2018). Effect of motor exercises on serum level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and executive function in children with dysgraphia. J. Kermanshah Univ. Med. Sci. 22:e79187.

Grieco L. A., Jowers E. M., Bartholomew J. B. (2009). Physically active academic lessons and time on task: the moderating effect of body mass index. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 41 1921–1926. 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181a61495 PubMed DOI

Hintze J. (2007). NCSS 2007. Kaysville, UT: NCSS.

Houwen S., van der Veer G., Visser J., Cantell M. (2017). The relationship between motor performance and parent-rated executive functioning in 3-to 5-year-old children: what is the role of confounding variables? Hum. Mov. Sci. 53 24–36. 10.1016/j.humov.2016.12.009 PubMed DOI

Howard S. J., Vella S. A., Cliff D. P. (2018). Children’s sports participation and self-regulation: bi-directional longitudinal associations. Early Child. Res. Q. 42 140–147. 10.1016/j.ecresq.2017.09.006 DOI

Kamijo K., Pontifex M. B., O’Leary K. C., Scudder M. R., Wu C. T., Castelli D. M., et al. (2011). The effects of an afterschool physical activity program on working memory in preadolescent children. Dev. Sci. 14 1046–1058. 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01054.x PubMed DOI PMC

Kopp B. (2012). A simple hypothesis of executive function. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 6:159. 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00159 PubMed DOI PMC

Korkman M., Kirk U., Kemp S. (2014). NEPSY-II. Madrid: Pearson.

Lan X., Legare C. H., Ponitz C. C., Li S., Morrison F. J. (2011). Investigating the links between the subcomponents of executive function and academic achievement: a cross-cultural analysis of Chinese and American preschoolers. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 108 677–692. 10.1016/j.jecp.2010.11.001 PubMed DOI

Latorre-Román P. Á, Mora-López D., García-Pinillos F. (2016). Intellectual maturity and physical fitness in preschool children. Pediatr. Int. 58 450–455. 10.1111/ped.12898 PubMed DOI

Lensing N., Elsner B. (2018). Development of hot and cool executive functions in middle childhood: three-year growth curves of decision making and working memory updating. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 173 187–204. 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.04.002 PubMed DOI

Lerner R. M., Liben L. S., Mueller U. (2015). Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, Cognitive Processes. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Liebermann D., Giesbrecht G. F., Müller U. (2007). Cognitive and emotional aspects of self-regulation in preschoolers. Cogn. Dev. 22 511–529. 10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.005 DOI

Lillard A. S., Drell M. B., Richey E. M., Boguszewski K., Smith E. D. (2015). Further examination of the immediate impact of television on children’s executive function. Dev. Psychol. 51 792–805. 10.1037/a0039097 PubMed DOI

Linebarger D. L., Barr R., Lapierre M. A., Piotrowski J. T. (2014). Associations between parenting, media use, cumulative risk, and children’s executive functioning. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 35 367–377. 10.1097/DBP.0000000000000069 PubMed DOI

Malina R. M., Bouchard C., Bar-Or O. (2004). Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Maurer M. N., Roebers C. M. (2019). Towards a better understanding of the association between motor skills and executive functions in 5-to 6-year-olds: the impact of motor task difficulty. Hum. Mov. Sci. 66 607–620. 10.1016/j.humov.2019.06.010 PubMed DOI

Maydeu-Olivares A. (2006). Limited information estimation and testing of discretized multivariate normal structural models. Psychometrika 71 57–77.

McDonald R. P. (1999). Test theory: A unified approach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

McDonald J. D. (2008). Measuring personality constructs: the advantages and disadvantages of self-reports, informant reports and behavioural assessments. Enquire 1 75–94.

McDonald R. P., Marsh H. W. (1990). Choosing a multivariate model: noncentrality and goodness of fit. Psychol. Bull. 107:247. 10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.247 DOI

Měkota K., Kovář R. (1995). Unifittest (6-60): Test and Norms of Motor Performance and Physical Fitness in Youth and in Adult Age. Olomouc: Vydavatelství Univerzity Palackého.

Meredith M. D., Welk G. (eds) (2010). Fitnessgram and Activitygram Test Administration Manual-Updated, 4th Edn. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Miyake A., Friedman N. P., Emerson M. J., Witzki A. H., Howerter A., Wager T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn. Psychol. 41 49–100. 10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 PubMed DOI

Morrow J. R., Jr., Zhu W., Franks D. B., Meredith M. D., Spain C. (2009). 1958–2008: 50 years of youth fitness tests in the United States. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 80 1–11. 10.1080/02701367.2009.10599524 PubMed DOI

Mulvey K. L., Taunton S., Pennell A., Brian A. (2018). Head, toes, knees, SKIP! Improving preschool children’s executive function through a motor competence intervention. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 40 233–239. 10.1123/jsep.2018-0007 PubMed DOI

Nelson J. M., James T. D., Chevalier N., Clark C. A. C., Espy K. A. (2016). “Structure, measurement, and development of preschool executive function,” in Executive Function in Preschool-Age Children: Integrating Measurement, Neurodevelopment, and Translational Research, eds Griffin J. A., McCardle P., Freund L. S. (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; ), 65–89. 10.1037/14797-004 DOI

Oberer N., Gashaj V., Roebers C. M. (2018). Executive functions, visual-motor coordination, physical fitness and academic achievement: longitudinal relations in typically developing children. Hum. Mov. Sci. 58 69–79. 10.1016/j.humov.2018.01.003 PubMed DOI

Ortega F. B., Cadenas-Sánchez C., Sánchez-Delgado G., Mora-González J., Martínez-Téllez B., Artero E. G., et al. (2015). Systematic review and proposal of a field-based physical fitness-test battery in preschool children: the PREFIT battery. Sports Med. 45 533–555. 10.1007/s40279-014-0281-8 PubMed DOI

Pellegrini A. D., Smith P. K. (1998). Physical activity play: the nature and function of a neglected aspect of play. Child Dev. 69 577–598. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06226.x PubMed DOI

Piaget J., Inhelder B. (1966). L’image Mentale chez L’enfant. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Piché G., Fitzpatrick C., Pagani L. S. (2012). Kindergarten self-regulation as a predictor of body mass index and sports participation in fourth grade students. Mind Brain Educ. 6 19–26. 10.1111/j.1751-228x.2011.01132.x DOI

Piché G., Fitzpatrick C., Pagani L. S. (2015). Associations between extracurricular activity and self-regulation: a longitudinal study from 5 to 10 years of age. Am. J. Health Promot. 30 32–40. PubMed

Planinsec J., Pisot R. (2006). Motor coordination and intelligence level in adolescents. Adolescence 41 667–676. PubMed

Prencipe A., Kesek A., Cohen J., Lamm C., Lewis M. D., Zelazo P. D. (2011). Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 108 621–637. 10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.008 PubMed DOI

Rarick G.(ed.) (2012). Physical Activity: Human Growth and Development. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Robinson L. E., Stodden D. F., Barnett L. M., Lopes V. P., Logan S. W., Rodrigues L. P., et al. (2015). Motor competence and its effect on positive developmental trajectories of health. Sports Med. 45 1273–1284. 10.1007/s40279-015-0351-6 PubMed DOI

Roebers C. M., Kauer M. (2009). Motor and cognitive control in a normative sample of 7-year-olds. Dev. Sci. 12 175–181. 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00755.x PubMed DOI

Roh H. T., Cho S. Y., Yoon H. G., So W. Y. (2017). Effect of exercise intensity on neurotrophic factors and blood–brain barrier permeability induced by oxidative–nitrosative stress in male college students. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 27 239–246. 10.1123/ijsnem.2016-0009 PubMed DOI

Rowland T. W. (1998). The biological basis of physical activity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 30 392–399. PubMed

Ruiz J. R., Castro-Piñero J., España-Romero V., Artero E. G., Ortega F. B., Cuenca M. M., et al. (2011). Field-based fitness assessment in young people: the ALPHA health-related fitness test battery for children and adolescents. Br. J. Sports Med. 45 518–524. 10.1136/bjsm.2010.075341 PubMed DOI

Shim S. H., Hwangbo Y., Kwon Y. J., Jeong H. Y., Lee B. H., Lee H. J., et al. (2008). Increased levels of plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 32 1824–1828. 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.08.005 PubMed DOI

Sibley B. A., Etnier J. L. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 15 243–256. 10.1123/pes.15.3.243 DOI

Silva C., Annamalai K. (2008). Entropy generation and human aging: lifespan entropy and effect of physical activity level. Entropy 10 100–123. 10.3390/entropy-e10020100 DOI

Skogli E. W., Andersen P. N., Hovik K. T., Øie M. (2017). Development of hot and cold executive function in boys and girls with ADHD: a 2-year longitudinal study. J. Atten. Dis. 21 305–315. 10.1177/1087054714524984 PubMed DOI

Torres M. M., Domitrovich C. E., Bierman K. L. (2015). Preschool interpersonal relationships predict kindergarten achievement: mediated by gains in emotion knowledge. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 39 44–52. 10.1016/j.appdev.2015.04.008 PubMed DOI PMC

US Department of Health and Human Services (2008). Physical activity Guidelines Advisory Committee: 2008. Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 9-683. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services.

Utendale W. T., Hubert M., Saint-Pierre A. B., Hastings P. D. (2011). Neurocognitive development and externalizing problems: the role of inhibitory control deficits from 4 to 6 years. Aggress. Behav. 37 476–488. 10.1002/ab.20403 PubMed DOI

Vaynman S., Gomez-Pinilla F. (2006). Revenge of the “sit”: how lifestyle impacts neuronal and cognitive health through molecular systems that interface energy metabolism with neuronal plasticity. J. Neurosci. Res. 84 699–715. 10.1002/jnr.20979 PubMed DOI

Verburgh L., Königs M., Scherder E. J., Oosterlaan J. (2014). Physical exercise and executive functions in preadolescent children, adolescents and young adults: a meta-analysis. Br. J. Sports Med. 48 973–979. 10.1136/bjsports-2012-091441 PubMed DOI

Visier-Alfonso M. E., Sánchez-López M., Martínez-Vizcaíno V., Jiménez-López E., Redondo-Tébar A., Nieto-López M. (2020). Executive functions mediate the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and academic achievement in Spanish schoolchildren aged 8 to 11 years. PLoS One 15:e0231246. 10.1371/journal.pone.0231246 PubMed DOI PMC

Welk G. J., Corbin C. B., Dale D. (2000). Measurement issues in the assessment of physical activity in children. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 71 (Suppl. 2), 59–73. 10.1080/02701367.2000.11082788 PubMed DOI

Zelazo P. D. (2006). The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS): a method of assessing executive function in children. Nat. Protoc. 1 297–301. 10.1038/nprot.2006.46 PubMed DOI

Zelazo P. D., Muller U., Frye D., Marcovitch S. (2003). The development of executive function in early childhood. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 68 1–27. 10.1111/j.0037-976X.2003.00261.x PubMed DOI

Relationship among some coordinative and dynamic strength capabilities and constructive and conceptual thinking among preschool-age children

Associations between Fundamental Movement Skills, Physical Fitness, Motor Competency, Physical Activity, and Executive Functions in Pre-School Age Children: A Systematic Review