Domestication of horses fundamentally transformed long-range mobility and warfare1. However, modern domesticated breeds do not descend from the earliest domestic horse lineage associated with archaeological evidence of bridling, milking and corralling2-4 at Botai, Central Asia around 3500 BC3. Other longstanding candidate regions for horse domestication, such as Iberia5 and Anatolia6, have also recently been challenged. Thus, the genetic, geographic and temporal origins of modern domestic horses have remained unknown. Here we pinpoint the Western Eurasian steppes, especially the lower Volga-Don region, as the homeland of modern domestic horses. Furthermore, we map the population changes accompanying domestication from 273 ancient horse genomes. This reveals that modern domestic horses ultimately replaced almost all other local populations as they expanded rapidly across Eurasia from about 2000 BC, synchronously with equestrian material culture, including Sintashta spoke-wheeled chariots. We find that equestrianism involved strong selection for critical locomotor and behavioural adaptations at the GSDMC and ZFPM1 genes. Our results reject the commonly held association7 between horseback riding and the massive expansion of Yamnaya steppe pastoralists into Europe around 3000 BC8,9 driving the spread of Indo-European languages10. This contrasts with the scenario in Asia where Indo-Iranian languages, chariots and horses spread together, following the early second millennium BC Sintashta culture11,12.

Albrecht Daniel Thaer Institute Faculty of Life Sciences Humboldt University Berlin Berlin Germany

Anthropology Faculty Hartwick College Oneonta NY USA

ArchaeoBioCenter and Institute of Palaeoanatomy Domestication Research and the History of Veterinary Medicine LMU Munich Munich Germany

Archaeological Institute of America Boston MA USA

Archaeological Research Collection Tallinn University Tallinn Estonia

Archaeological School Chuvash State Institute of Humanities Cheboksary Russia

Archaeology of Social Dynamics Institució Milà i Fontanals d'Humanitats Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Barcelona Spain

ArchaeoZOOlogy in Siberia and Central Asia ZooSCAn International Research Laboratory Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the RAS Novosibirsk Russia

Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute St Petersburg Russia

ArScAn UMR 7041 Equipe Ethnologie préhistorique CNRS MSH Mondes Nanterre Cedex France

Ásatárs Ltd Kecskemét Hungary

Center for the Study of Human Origins Anthropology Department New York University New York NY USA

Center of Archaeology Institute of Cultural Heritage Academy of Science of Moldova Chișinău Republic of Moldova

Centre d'Anthropobiologie et de Génomique de Toulouse Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse France

Centre National de Recherche Scientifique Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle Archéozoologie Archéobotanique CP 56 Paris France

Centro Mixto UCM ISCIII de Evolución y Comportamiento Humanos Madrid Spain

Chinggis Khaan Museum Ulaanbaatar Mongolia

Departament d'Història i Arqueologia SERP Universitat de Barcelona Barcelona Spain

Departamento de Geodinámica Estratigrafía y Paleontología Facultad de Ciencias Geológicas Universidad Complutense de Madrid Madrid Spain

Departamento de Medicina Animal Facultad de Veterinaria Universidad de Extremadura Cáceres Spain

Department of Academic Management Academy of Science of Moldova Chișinău Republic of Moldova

Department of Anthropology Alumni Building University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Chapel Hill NC USA

Department of Archaeogenetics Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Leipzig Germany

Department of Archaeogenetics Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Jena Germany

Department of Archaeological Heritage Preservation Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences Moscow Russia

Department of Archaeology Ethnography and Museology Altai State University Barnaul Russia

Department of Archaeology Ethnology and Museology Al Farabi Kazakh National University Almaty Kazakhstan

Department of Archaeology History Faculty Vilnius University Vilnius Lithuania

Department of Archaeology Institute of History and Archaeology Tartu Estonia

Department of Archaeology Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Jena Germany

Department of Archaeology Ulaanbaatar State University Ulaanbaatar Mongolia

Department of Archaeology University of Exeter Exeter UK

Department of Biology National University of Mongolia Ulaanbaatar Mongolia

Department of Biology Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Madrid Spain

Department of Biotechnology Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan Pakistan

Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology University of Tübingen Tübingen Germany

Department of Eastern European and Siberian Archaeology State Hermitage Museum St Petersburg Russia

Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Santa Cruz Santa Cruz CA USA

Department of Eneolithic and Bronze Age Institute of Archaeology National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine Kyiv Ukraine

Department of Evolutionary Genetics Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research Berlin Germany

Department of Genetics and Evolution University of Geneva Geneva Switzerland

Department of Genetics Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary

Department of Historical Studies University of Gothenburg Gothenburg Sweden

Department of History and Archaeology Surgut Governmental University Surgut Russia

Department of History Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University Bishkek Kyrgyzstan

Department of History of the Institute of Humanities Ural Federal University Ekaterinburg Russia

Department of Human Evolutionary Biology Harvard University Cambridge MA USA

Department of Natural Sciences and Archaeometry Institute of Archaeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences Prague Czechia

Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark

Department of paleontology Faculty of Geology Moscow State University Moscow Russia

Department of Prehistory and Western Asian Northeast African Archaeology Austrian Archaeological Institute Austrian Academy of Sciences Vienna Austria

Department of Russian History and Archaeology Samara State University of Social Sciences and Education Samara Russia

Department of the Diversity and Evolution of Genomes Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology SB RAS Novosibirsk Russia

Department of Zoology Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences University of Tartu Tartu Estonia

Diamond and Precious Metals Geology Institute SB RAS Yakutsk Russia

Division of Archaeology Biodiversity Institute University of Kansas Lawrence KS USA

Earth System Science Department University of California Irvine Irvine CA USA

Estonian Biocentre Institute of Genomics University of Tartu Tartu Estonia

Eurasia Department of the German Archaeological Institute Berlin Germany

Evolutionary Adaptive Genomics Institute of Biochemistry and Biology Faculty of Mathematics and Science University of Potsdam Potsdam Germany

Faculty of History L N Gumilev Eurasian National University Nur Sultan Kazakhstan

Geneva Natural History Museum Geneva Switzerland

Génomique Métabolique Genoscope Institut de biologie François Jacob CEA CNRS Université d'Evry Université Paris Saclay Evry France

Genoscope Institut de biologie François Jacob Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique Université Paris Saclay Evry France

Geological Institute Russian Academy of Sciences Moscow Russia

Georgian National Museum Tbilisi Georgia

Grup d'Investigació Prehistòrica Universitat de Lleida PID2019 110022GB I00 Lleida Spain

Howard Hughes Medical Institute University of California Santa Cruz Santa Cruz CA USA

Institute for Archaeology Heritage Conservation Studies and Art History University of Bamberg Bamberg Germany

Institute for Pre and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces Ludwig Maximilian University Munich Munich Germany

Institute for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology Kiel University Kiel Germany

Institute for the History of Material Culture Russian Academy of Sciences St Petersburg Russia

Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna Vienna Austria

Institute of Archaeogenomics Research Centre for the Humanities Eötvös Loránd Research Network Budapest Hungary

Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology Polish Academy of Sciences Kraków Poland

Institute of Archaeology and Steppe Civilizations Al Farabi Kazakh National University Almaty Kazakhstan

Institute of Archaeology Jagiellonian University Kraków Poland

Institute of Archaeology Mongolian Academy of Sciences Ulaanbaatar Mongolia

Institute of Archaeology Research Centre for the Humanities Eötvös Loránd Research Network Budapest Hungary

Institute of Geology and Petroleum Technologies Kazan Federal University Kazan Russia

Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals Polish Academy of Sciences Kraków Poland

Instituto de Arqueología Mérida Spain

Laboratori d'Arqueologia Prehistòrica Universitat Jaume 1 Castelló de la Plana Spain

Laboratory for Archaeological Research Faculty of History and Law Kostanay State University Kostanay Kazakhstan

Leiden University Center for Linguistics Leiden University Leiden The Netherlands

Lundbeck Foundation GeoGenetics Centre Copenhagen Denmark

Lundbeck Foundation GeoGenetics Centre GLOBE Institute University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark

Musée d'Anthropologie préhistorique de Monaco Monaco Monaco

Muséum d'histoire naturelle Secteur des Vertébrés Geneva Switzerland

Museum of Natural History University of Colorado Boulder Boulder CO USA

Museum Østjylland Randers Denmark

Nasledie Cultural Heritage Unit Stavropol Russia

OD Earth and History of Life Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences Brussels Belgium

Paleoecology Laboratory Institute of Plant and Animal Ecology Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences Ekaterinburg Russia

Prague Czechia

Research Center for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage Saratov Russia

Research Institute and Museum of Anthropology Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow Russia

Rippl Rónai Municipal Museum with Country Scope Kaposvár Hungary

ROOTS Excellence Cluster Kiel University Kiel Germany

Russian and Foreign History Department South Ural State University Chelyabinsk Russia

Saryarka Archaeological Institute Buketov Karaganda University Karaganda Kazakhstan

Saxo Institute section of Archaeology University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark

School of Biological Sciences The University of Adelaide Adelaide South Australia Australia

School of History Classics and Archaeology University of Edinburgh Old Medical School Edinburgh UK

Scientific Research Department Orenburg State Pedagogical University Orenburg Russia

Semenov Tyan Shanskii Lipetsk State Pedagogical University Lipetsk Russia

SFB 1070 Resource Cultures University of Tübingen Tübingen Germany

SNSB State Collection of Anthropology and Palaeoanatomy Munich Germany

South Ural Department Institute of History and Archaeology Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences Ekaterinburg Russia

Tbilisi State University Tbilisi Georgia

Toraighyrov University Joint Research Center for Archeological Studies Pavlodar Kazakhstan

Trace and Environmental DNA Lab School of Molecular and Life Sciences Curtin University Perth Western Australia Australia

UMR 5199 De la Préhistoire à l'Actuel Culture Environnement et Anthropologie CNRS Université de Bordeaux Pessac Cedex France

UMR 7194 Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle CNRS UPVD Paris France

Università degli Studi di Milano Dipartimento di Beni Culturali e Ambientali Milan Italy

University of Tehran Central Laboratory Bioarchaeology Laboratory Archaeozoology Section Tehran Iran

Valencia Spain

Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology Department of Bioarchaeology Romanian Academy Bucharest Romania

W Szafer Institute of Botany Polish Academy of Sciences Kraków Poland

Zoological Institute Russian Academy of Sciences St Petersburg Russia

Zoology Department College of Science King Saud University Riyadh Saudi Arabia

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Widespread horse-based mobility arose around 2200 BCE in Eurasia

Late History of Cattle Breeds in Central Europe in Light of Genetic and Archaeogenetic Sources-Overview, Thoughts, and Perspectives

Population genomics of post-glacial western Eurasia

Testing Times: Challenges in Disentangling Admixture Histories in Recent and Complex Demographies

Modeling of African population history using f-statistics is biased when applying all previously proposed SNP ascertainment schemes

On the limits of fitting complex models of population history to f-statistics

Modeling of African population history using f -statistics can be highly biased and is not addressed by previously suggested SNP ascertainment schemes

The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe

Stone Age Yersinia pestis genomes shed light on the early evolution, diversity, and ecology of plague