The global increase in biological invasions is placing growing pressure on the management of ecological and economic systems. However, the effectiveness of current management expenditure is difficult to assess due to a lack of standardised measurement across spatial, taxonomic and temporal scales. Furthermore, there is no quantification of the spending difference between pre-invasion (e.g. prevention) and post-invasion (e.g. control) stages, although preventative measures are considered to be the most cost-effective. Here, we use a comprehensive database of invasive alien species economic costs (InvaCost) to synthesise and model the global management costs of biological invasions, in order to provide a better understanding of the stage at which these expenditures occur. Since 1960, reported management expenditures have totalled at least US$95.3 billion (in 2017 values), considering only highly reliable and actually observed costs - 12-times less than damage costs from invasions ($1130.6 billion). Pre-invasion management spending ($2.8 billion) was over 25-times lower than post-invasion expenditure ($72.7 billion). Management costs were heavily geographically skewed towards North America (54%) and Oceania (30%). The largest shares of expenditures were directed towards invasive alien invertebrates in terrestrial environments. Spending on invasive alien species management has grown by two orders of magnitude since 1960, reaching an estimated $4.2 billion per year globally (in 2017 values) in the 2010s, but remains 1-2 orders of magnitude lower than damages. National management spending increased with incurred damage costs, with management actions delayed on average by 11 years globally following damage reporting. These management delays on the global level have caused an additional invasion cost of approximately $1.2 trillion, compared to scenarios with immediate management. Our results indicate insufficient management - particularly pre-invasion - and urge better investment to prevent future invasions and to control established alien species. Recommendations to improve reported management cost comprehensiveness, resolution and terminology are also made.

BioInvasions Global Change Macroecology Group Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research University of Vienna Rennweg 14 1030 Vienna Austria

Center for Applied Mathematics and Bioinformatics Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences Gulf University for Science and Technology P O Box 7207 Hawally 32093 Kuwait

Department of Biology Carleton University Ottawa Ontario K1S 5B6 Canada

Department of Integrative Biology University of South Florida Tampa FL 33620 United States

GEOMAR Helmholtz Zentrum für Ozeanforschung Kiel 24105 Kiel Germany

GEOMAR Helmholtz Zentrum für Ozeanforschung Kiel 24105 Kiel Germany; School of Biological Sciences Queen's University Belfast BT9 5DL Belfast United Kingdom

ISEM UMR226 Université de Montpellier CNRS IRD EPHE 34090 Montpellier France

School of Biological Sciences King's College University of Aberdeen Aberdeen AB24 3FX United Kingdom

Sukachev Institute of Forest Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences Federal Research Center Krasnoyarsk Science Center SB RAS Krasnoyarsk 660036 Russia; Siberian Federal University Krasnoyarsk 660041 Russia; Saint Petersburg State Forest Technical University Saint Petersburg 194021 Russia

Université Paris Saclay CNRS AgroParisTech Ecologie Systématique Evolution 91405 Orsay France

University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses Zátiší 728 2 389 25 Vodňany Czech Republic; Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum Frankfurt Department of River Ecology and Conservation Gelnhausen Germany

University of Southern Denmark Department of Sociology Environmental and Business Economics Degnevej 14 6705 Esbjerg Ø Denmark; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Marine Policy Center Woods Hole MA 02543 United States; Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters Hellenic Center for Marine Research Athens 164 52 Greece

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