AIM: Understanding the variation in community composition and species abundances (i.e., β-diversity) is at the heart of community ecology. A common approach to examine β-diversity is to evaluate directional variation in community composition by measuring the decay in the similarity among pairs of communities along spatial or environmental distance. We provide the first global synthesis of taxonomic and functional distance decay along spatial and environmental distance by analysing 148 datasets comprising different types of organisms and environments. LOCATION: Global. TIME PERIOD: 1990 to present. MAJOR TAXA STUDIED: From diatoms to mammals. METHOD: We measured the strength of the decay using ranked Mantel tests (Mantel r) and the rate of distance decay as the slope of an exponential fit using generalized linear models. We used null models to test whether functional similarity decays faster or slower than expected given the taxonomic decay along the spatial and environmental distance. We also unveiled the factors driving the rate of decay across the datasets, including latitude, spatial extent, realm and organismal features. RESULTS: Taxonomic distance decay was stronger than functional distance decay along both spatial and environmental distance. Functional distance decay was random given the taxonomic distance decay. The rate of taxonomic and functional spatial distance decay was fastest in the datasets from mid-latitudes. Overall, datasets covering larger spatial extents showed a lower rate of decay along spatial distance but a higher rate of decay along environmental distance. Marine ecosystems had the slowest rate of decay along environmental distances. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: In general, taxonomic distance decay is a useful tool for biogeographical research because it reflects dispersal-related factors in addition to species responses to climatic and environmental variables. Moreover, functional distance decay might be a cost-effective option for investigating community changes in heterogeneous environments.

Balaton Limnological Research Institute ELKH Tihany Hungary

Baltic Sea Centre Stockholm University Stockholm Sweden

BIOME Lab Department of Biological Geological and Environmental Sciences Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna Bologna Italy

Botanical Garden University of Wrocław Wrocław Poland

Canadian Rivers Institute Biology Department University of New Brunswick Fredericton New Brunswick Canada

Center for Biological Diversity Conservation in Powsin Polish Academy of Sciences Botanical Garden Warsaw Poland

Centre for Ecological Research Wetland Ecology Research Group Debrecen Hungary

Centre for Macroecology Evolution and Climate University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Ø Denmark

Centro Oceanográfico de Gijón Instituto Español de Oceanografía Gijón Asturias Spain

Departamento de Ciências do Mar Instituto do Mar Universidade Federal de São Paulo R Carvalho de Mendonça Santos SP Brazil

Departamento de Oceanografia Biológica Rio de Janeiro RJ Brasil

Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences University of Tuscia Viterbo Italy

Department of Agricultural Sciences University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Department of Agrobotany Faculty of Agriculture University of Belgrade Belgrade Zemun Serbia

Department of Biological and Environmental Science University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä Finland

Department of Biology CBMA Centre for Molecular and Environmental Biology University of Minho Braga Portugal

Department of Biology Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway

Department of Biology International Campus of Excellence of the Sea Spain

Department of Botany and Zoology Masaryk University Brno Czech Republic

Department of Botany Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia České Budějovice Czech Republic

Department of Botany School of Biology Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Thessaloniki Greece

Department of Botany Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Alegre RS Brazil

Department of Ecology and Environmental Conservation Faculty of Biology Institute of Environmental Biology University of Warsaw Warsaw Poland

Department of Ecology Research Unit Modeling Nature Faculty of Sciences University of Granada Granada Spain

Department of Entomology College of Plant Protection Nanjing Agricultural University Nanjing China

Department of Environmental Biology Sapienza University of Rome Rome Italy

Department of Environmental Biology University Sapienza of Rome Rome Italy

Department of Environmental Systems Science Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems ETH Zurich Zurich Switzerland

Department of Geosciences and Geography University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology University of Ferrara Ferrara Italy

Department of Life Sciences University of Siena Siena Italy

Department of Nature Conservation Heinz Sielmann Foundation Wustermark Germany

Department of Plant and Soil Sciences University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa

Department of Plant Biology and Ecology University of the Basque Country UPV EHU Bilbao Spain

Department of Science University of Roma Tre Rome Italy

Department STEBICEF Botanical Unit University of Palermo Palermo Italy

Earth System Science Center CCST INPE National Institute for Space Research São José dos Campos SP Brazil

Ecología Funcional de Sistemas Acuáticos CURE Rocha Universidad de la República Montevideo Uruguay

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Czech Republic

Faculty of Science and Technology Free University of Bozen Bolzano Bozen Bolzano Italy

Finnish Museum of Natural History University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Fisheries New Zealand Tini a Tangaroa Ministry for Primary Industries Wellington New Zealand

Forest Entomology Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL Birmensdorf Switzerland

Freshwater Biological Laboratory Department of Biology University of Copenhagen Universitetsparken København Ø Denmark

Freshwater Centre Finnish Environment Institute Jyväskylä Office University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä Finland

Freshwater Centre Finnish Environment Institute Oulu Finland

Geography Research Unit University of Oulu Oulu Finland

George S Wise Faculty of Life Sciences School of Zoology Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv Israel

German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research Halle Jena Leipzig Leipzig Germany

Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology University of Hawai'i Kaneohe Hawaii USA

Institute for Biochemistry and Biology University of Potsdam Potsdam Germany

Institute for Biology Geobotany and Botanical Garden Martin Luther University Halle Wittenberg Halle Germany

Institute of Biology University of Opole Opole Poland

Institute of Botany The Czech Academy of Sciences Průhonice Czech Republic

Laboratoire d'Excellence Labex Corail UMR IRD UR CNRS ENTROPIE IRD Université de Perpignan Perpignan Cedex France

Laboratory for Integrative Biodiversity Research Finnish Museum of Natural History Luomus University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Laboratory of Ecology and Physiology of Phytoplankton Department of Plant Biology State University of Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil

Laboratory of Grassland Vegetation Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre RS Brazil

Laboratory of Phycology and Environmental Education Department of Plant Biology State University of Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil

Lammi Biological Station University of Helsinki Lammi Finland

Marine Macroecology and Biogeography Lab Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia CCB Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina Florianopolis SC Brazil

Modelización y Análisis de Recursos Naturales CURE Rocha Universidad de la República Montevideo Uruguay

Morten Chr Consult Sorø Denmark

National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine M G Kholodny Institute of Botany Kyiv Ukraine

National Museum of Natural History Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia Bulgaria

National Research Council Pallanza Italy

Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland

Phycology Laboratory Botany Department National Museum Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro RJ Brasil

Phycology Laboratory Botany Department National Museum Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil

Plant Ecology Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research Bayreuth Germany

Plant Science and Biodiversity Center Institute of Botany Slovak Academy of Sciences Banská Bystrica Slovakia

Pristine Seas National Geographic Society Washington District of Columbia USA

Reef Systems Ecology and Conservation Lab Departamento de Biologia Marinha Universidade Federal Fluminense Niterói RJ Brazil

School of Rural and Environmental Sciences University of New England Armidale New South Wales Australia

Sección Limnología IECA Facultad de Ciencias Universidad de la República Montevideo Uruguay

State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research East China Normal University Shanghai China

State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology Chinese Academy of Sciences Nanjing China

Steinhardt Museum of Natural History Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv Israel

Terrestrial Ecology Research Group Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management Technical University of Munich Freising Germany

Tvärminne Zoological Station University of Helsinki Hanko Finland

Vegetation Ecology Institute of Natural Resource Sciences Wädenswil Switzerland

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