Cannabis sativa L., a plant historically utilized for textile fibers, oil, and animal feed, is progressively being recognized as a potential food source. This review elucidates the nutritional and functional attributes of hemp and cannabidiol (CBD) within the context of food science. Hemp is characterized by the presence of approximately 545 secondary metabolites, among which around 144 are bioactive cannabinoids of primary importance. The study looks in detail at the nutritional components of cannabis and the potential health benefits of CBD, encompassing anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, and antipsychotic effects. The review deals with the legislation and potential applications of hemp in the food industry and with the future directions of cannabis applications as well. The paper emphasizes the need for more scientific investigation to validate the safety and efficacy of hemp components in food products, as current research suggests that CBD may have great benefits for a wide range of consumers.

Department of Foodstuff Technology Faculty of Technology Tomas Bata University in Zlin Nám T G Masaryka 5555 CZ 760 01 Zlin Czech Republic

Department of Physical Chemistry Faculty of Science Palacky University Olomouc 17 Listopadu 12 CZ 771 46 Olomouc Czech Republic

See more in PubMed

Appendio G., Chianese G., Taglialatela-Scafati O. Cannabinoids: Occurrence and medicinal chemistry. Curr. Med. Chem. 2011;18:1085–1099. doi: 10.2174/092986711794940888. PubMed DOI

Ross S., ElSohly M. The Volatile Oil Composition of Fresh and Air-Dried Buds of Cannabis sativa. J. Nat. Prod. 1996;59:49–51. doi: 10.1021/np960004a. PubMed DOI

ElSohly M., Turner C., Phoebe C., Joseph Knapp J., Schiff P., Slatkin D. Anhydrocannabisativine, a New Alkaloid from Cannabis sativa L. J. Pharm. Sci. 1978;67:124. doi: 10.1002/jps.2600670135. PubMed DOI

Kim E., Mahlberg P. Immunochemical localization of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in cryopreserved glandular trichomes of cannabis (Cannabaceae) Am. J. Bot. 1997;84:336–342. doi: 10.2307/2446007. PubMed DOI

Hartsel J., Eades J., Hickory B., Makriyannis A. Chapter 53—Cannabis sativa and hemp. In: Gupta R.C., editor. Nutraceuticals: Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity. 1st ed. Academic Press; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2021. pp. 735–754. DOI

Thomas B., ElSohly M. Analytical Cannabis Chemistry: Quality Assessment, Assurance and Regulation of Medicinal Marijuana and Cannabinoid Products. 1st ed. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2015.

Lehmann T., Brenneisen R. High Performance Liquid Chromatographic Profiling of Cannabis Products. J. Liq. Chromatogr. 1995;18:689–700. doi: 10.1080/10826079508009265. DOI

Commission (EU) Implementing Decision. 2017, 2017/478. [(accessed on 18 August 2023)]. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32017D0478.

Turner C., ElSohly M., Boeren E. Contents of Cannabis sativa L. XVII. Overview of natural constituents. J. Nat. Prod. 1980;43:169–234. doi: 10.1021/np50008a001. PubMed DOI

Morales P., Hurst D., Reggio P. Molecular targets of phytocannabinoids: A complex picture. Prog. Chem. Org. Nat. Prod. 2017;103:103–131. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-45541-9_4. PubMed DOI PMC

Ciolino L., Ranieri T., Taylor A. Commercial cannabis products for consumers, Part 1: Qualitative analysis of cannabinoids by GC-MS. Forensic Sci. Int. 2018;289:429–437. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.05.032. PubMed DOI

Anonym Scientific opinion on the risks to human health associated with the presence of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in milk and other foods of animal origin. EFSA J. 2015;13:4141. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4141. DOI

Aizpurua-Olaizola O., Omar J., Navarro P., Olivares M., Etxebarria N., Usobiaga A. Identification and quantification of cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L. plants by high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2014;406:7549–7560. doi: 10.1007/s00216-014-8177-x. PubMed DOI

Baňas B., Beitzke B., Carus M., Iffland K., Kruse D., Sarmento L., Sfrija D. Reasonable Guideline Values for THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) in Food Products. 2017. [(accessed on 18 August 2023)]. pp. 1–11. Available online: http://eiha.org/media/2017/09/17-09-18-THC-Position-paper_EIHA.pdf.

Regulation (EU) 1307/2013. [(accessed on 2 August 2021)]. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2013:347:0608:0670:en:PDF.

Grotenhermen F. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2003;42:327–360. doi: 10.2165/00003088-200342040-00003. PubMed DOI

Mechoulam R., Carlini E. On cannabis-derived drugs. Naturwissenschaften. 1978;65:174–179. doi: 10.1007/BF00450585. PubMed DOI

Pacher P., Bátkai S., Kunos G. The endocannabinoid system as a new target for pharmacotherapy. Pharmacol. Rev. 2006;58:389–462. doi: 10.1124/pr.58.3.2. PubMed DOI PMC

Fine P., Rosenfeld M. The endocannabinoid system, cannabinoids and pain. Rambam Maimonides Med. J. 2013;4:e0022. doi: 10.5041/RMMJ.10129. PubMed DOI PMC

Hanuš L., Meyer S., Muñoz E., Taglialatela-Scafati O., Appendino G. Phytocannabinoids: A unified critical inventory. Nat. Prod. Rep. 2016;33:1357–1392. doi: 10.1039/C6NP00074F. PubMed DOI

Piscitelli F., Di Marzo V. Cannabinoids: A class of unique natural products with unique pharmacology. Rend. Lincei Sci. Fis. Nat. 2021;32:5–15. doi: 10.1007/s12210-020-00966-y. DOI

Bonaccorso S., Ricciardi A., Zangani C., Chiappini S., Schifano F. Cannabidiol (CBD) use in psychiatric disorders: A systematic review. NeuroToxicology. 2019;74:282–298. doi: 10.1016/j.neuro.2019.08.002. PubMed DOI

Izzo A., Borrelli F., Capasso R., Di Marzo V., Mechoulam R. Non-psychotropic plant cannabinoids: New therapeutic options from an ancient herb. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2009;30:515–527. doi: 10.1016/j.tips.2009.07.006. PubMed DOI

Adams R. Marijuana: The Harvey Lecture, 19 February 1942. Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med. 1942;18:705–730. PubMed PMC

Atalay S., Jarocka-Karpowicz I., Skrzydlewska E. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of cannabidiol. Antioxidants. 2020;9:21. doi: 10.3390/antiox9010021. PubMed DOI PMC

Babson K., Sottile J., Morabito D. Cannabis, cannabinoids and sleep: A review of the literature. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 2017;19:23. doi: 10.1007/s11920-017-0775-9. PubMed DOI

Iffland K., Grotenhermen F. Update on the safety and side effects of cannabidiol: A review of clinical data and relevant animal studies. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2017;2:139–154. doi: 10.1089/can.2016.0034. PubMed DOI PMC

Pisanti S., Malfitano A.M., Ciaglia E., Lamberti A., Ranieri R., Cuomo G., Abate M., Faggiana G., Proto M.C., Fiore D., et al. Cannabidiol: State of the art and new challenges for therapeutic applications. Pharmacol. Ther. 2017;175:133–150. doi: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.02.041. PubMed DOI

Fernández-Ruiz J., Sagredo O., Pazos M., García C., Pertwee R., Mechoulam R., Martínez-Orgado J. Cannabidiol for neurodegenerative disorders: New important clinical applications of this phytocannabinoid? Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2013;75:323–333. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2012.04341.x. PubMed DOI PMC

Morano A., Fanella M., Albini M., Cifelli P., Palma E., Giallonardo A., Di Bonaventura C. Cannabinoids in the treatment of epilepsy: Current status and future perspectives. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 2020;16:381–396. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S203782. PubMed DOI PMC

Czégény Z., Nagy G., Babinszki B., Bajtel Á., Sebestyén Z., Kiss T., Csupor-Löffler B., Tóth B., Csupor D. CBD, a precursor of THC in e-cigarettes. Sci. Rep. 2021;11:8951. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-88389-z. PubMed DOI PMC

Golombek P., Müller M., Barthlott I., Sproll C., Lachenmeier D. Conversion of cannabidiol (CBD) to psychotropic cannabinoids including tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): Controversies in the scientific literature. Toxic. 2020;8:41. doi: 10.3390/toxics8020041. PubMed DOI PMC

White C.M. A review of human studies evaluating the therapeutic effects and potential of cannabidiol (CBD) J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2019;59:923–934. doi: 10.1002/jcph.1387. PubMed DOI

Andre C., Hausman J., Guerriero G. Cannabis sativa: The plant of a thousand and one molecules. Front. Recent Dev. Plant Sci. 2016;7:19. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00019. PubMed DOI PMC

Morales P., Reggio P., Jagerovic N. A review on the medicinal chemistry of synthetic and natural cannabidiol derivatives. Front. Pharmacol. 2017;8:422. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00422. PubMed DOI PMC

Corroon J., Phillips J. A cross-sectional study of cannabidiol users. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2018;3:152–161. doi: 10.1089/can.2018.0006. PubMed DOI PMC

Bonn-Miller M., Loflin M., Thomas B., Marcu J., Hyke T., Vandrey R. Labeling Accuracy of Cannabidiol Extracts Sold Online. JAMA. 2017;318:1708–1709. doi: 10.1001/jama.2017.11909. PubMed DOI PMC

Russo E.B. Taming THC: Potential synergistic cannabis and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2011;163:1344–1364. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01238.x. PubMed DOI PMC

Pagano E., Montanaro V., Pistone A., Altieri V., Capasso R. Effect of non-psychotropic cannabinoids of plant origin on bladder contractility: Focus on cannabigerol. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2015;10:1009–1012. doi: 10.1177/1934578X1501000653. PubMed DOI

ElSohly M., Slade D. Chemical constituents of marijuana: A complex mixture of natural cannabinoids. Life Sci. 2005;78:539–548. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2005.09.011. PubMed DOI

Tomko A., Whynot E., Ellis L., Dupré D. Anticancer potential of cannabinoids, terpenes and flavonoids present in cannabis. Cancers. 2020;12:1985. doi: 10.3390/cancers12071985. PubMed DOI PMC

Ujváry I., Hanuš L. Human metabolites of cannabidiol: A review of their formation, biological activity and importance in therapy. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2016;1:90–101. doi: 10.1089/can.2015.0012. PubMed DOI PMC

Pollastro F., Caprioglio D., Del Prete D., Rogati F., Minassi A., Taglialatela-Scafati O., Munoz E., Appendino G. Cannabichromene. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2018;13:1934578X1801300. doi: 10.1177/1934578X1801300922. DOI

Karas J., Wong L., Paulin O., Mazeh A., Hussein M., Li J., Velkov T. Antimicrobial activity of cannabinoids. Antibiotics. 2020;9:406. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics9070406. PubMed DOI PMC

Citti C., Braghiroli D., Vandelli M., Cannazza G. Pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis of cannabinoids: A critical review. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2018;147:565–579. doi: 10.1016/j.jpba.2017.06.003. PubMed DOI

Leonard W., Zhang P., Ying D., Fang Z. Hemp seed in the food industry: Nutritional value, health benefits and industrial applications. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2019;19:282–308. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12517. PubMed DOI

Fellermeier M., Zenk M. Prenylation of olivetolate by hemp transferase produces cannabigerol acid, a precursor of tetrahydrocannabinol. FEBS Lett. 1998;427:283–285. doi: 10.1016/S0014-5793(98)00450-5. PubMed DOI

Kim A., Yun Y., Choi H., Hong C., Shim H., Lee J., Kim Y. Profiling cannabinoid content and expression levels of corresponding biosynthetic genes in commercial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivars. Plants. 2022;11:3088. doi: 10.3390/plants11223088. PubMed DOI PMC

Farinon B., Molinari R., Costantini L., Merendino N. Seeds of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): Hemp seed: Nutritional quality and potential functionality for human health and nutrition. Nutrients. 2020;12:1935. doi: 10.3390/nu12071935. PubMed DOI PMC

Tahir M., Shahbazi F., Rondeau-Gagné S., Trant J. Biosynthesis of cannabinoids. J. Cannabis Res. 2021;3:7. doi: 10.1186/s42238-021-00062-4. PubMed DOI PMC

Chen C., Pan Z. Cannabidiol and terpenes from hemp—Ingredients for future foods and processing technologies. J. Future Foods. 2021;1:113–127. doi: 10.1016/j.jfutfo.2022.01.001. DOI

Booth J.K., Yuen M.M.S., Jancsik S., Madilao L.L., Page J.E., Bohlmanna J. Terpene Synthases and Terpene Variation in Cannabis sativa. Plant Physiol. 2020;184:130–147. doi: 10.1104/pp.20.00593. PubMed DOI PMC

Desaulniers Brousseau V., Wu B.-S., MacPherson S., Morello V., Lefsrud M. Cannabinoids and Terpenes: How Production of Photo-Protectants Can Be Manipulated to Enhance Cannabis sativa L. Phytochemistry. Front. Plant Sci. 2021;12:620021. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2021.620021. PubMed DOI PMC

Fairbairn J., Liebmann J., Rowan M. Stability of cannabis and its preparations in storage. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1976;28:1–7. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1976.tb04014.x. PubMed DOI

Harvey D.J. Stability of cannabinoids in dried cannabis samples from around 1896–1905. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1990;28:117–128. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(90)90068-5. PubMed DOI

Peschel W. Quality control of traditional cannabis tinctures: Pattern, markers and stability. Sci. Pharm. 2016;84:567–584. doi: 10.3390/scipharm84030567. PubMed DOI PMC

Ratio of CBN and D9-THC Concentrations as an Indicator of the Age of Stored Marijuana Samples. 1997–1998. [(accessed on 24 August 2023)]. Available online: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1997-01-01_1_page008.html.

Wang M., Wang Y., Avula B., Radwan M.M., Wanas A.S., Van Antwerp J., Parcher J.F., ElSohly M.A., Khan I.A. Decarboxylation Study of Acidic Cannabinoids: A Novel Approach Using Ultra-High-Performance Supercritical Fluid Chromatography/Photodiode Array-Mass Spectrometry. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2016;1:262–271. doi: 10.1089/can.2016.0020. PubMed DOI PMC

Gaoni Y., Mechoulam R. Isolation, structure and partial synthesis of the active ingredient of hashish. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1964;86:1646–1647. doi: 10.1021/ja01062a046. DOI

McPartland J., Russo E. Cannabis and cannabis extracts: Greater than the sum of their parts? J. Cannabis Ther. 2001;1:103–132. doi: 10.1300/J175v01n03_08. DOI

Lindholst C. Long-term stability of hemp resin and hemp extracts. Aust. J. Forensic Sci. 2010;42:181–190. doi: 10.1080/00450610903258144. DOI

Moreno T., Montanes F., Tallon S., Fenton T., King J. Extraction of cannabinoids from hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) using high-pressure solvents: A review of different processing options. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 2020;161:104850. doi: 10.1016/j.supflu.2020.104850. DOI

Kanter S., Musumeci M., Hollister L. Quantitative determination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid in marijuana by high-pressure liquid chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A. 1979;171:504–508. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9673(01)95346-4. PubMed DOI

Veress T., Szanto J.I., Leisztner L. Determination of cannabinoid acids by high-performance liquid chromatography of their neutral derivatives formed by thermal decarboxylation. J. Chromatogr. A. 1990;520:339–347. doi: 10.1016/0021-9673(90)85118-F. DOI

Citti C., Pacchetti B., Vandelli M., Forni F., Cannazza G. Analysis of cannabinoids in commercial hemp seed oil and study of cannabidiol acid (CBDA) decarboxylation kinetics. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2018;149:532–540. doi: 10.1016/j.jpba.2017.11.044. PubMed DOI

Salehi A., Puchalski K., Shokoohinia Y., Zolfaghari B., Asgary S. Differentiating Cannabis Products: Drugs, Food, and Supplements. Front. Pharmacol. 2022;13:906038. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2022.906038. PubMed DOI PMC

Irakli M., Tsaliki E., Kalivas A., Kleisiaris F., Sarrou E., Cook C.M. Effect of Genotype and Growing Year on the Nutritional, Phytochemical, and Antioxidant Properties of Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Seeds. Antioxidants. 2019;8:491. doi: 10.3390/antiox8100491. PubMed DOI PMC

Andrews K.W., Gusev P.A., McNeal M., Savarala S., Dang P.T.V., Oh L., Atkinson R., Pehrsson P.R., Dwyer J.T., Saldanha L.G., et al. Dietary Supplement Ingredient Database (DSID) and the Application of Analytically Based Estimates of Ingredient Amount to Intake Calculations. J. Nutr. 2018;148:1413S–1421S. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxy092. PubMed DOI PMC

Korus J., Witczak M., Ziobro R., Juszczak L. Hemp (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa) flour and protein preparation as natural nutrients and structure forming agents in starch based gluten-free bread. LWT. 2017;84:143–150. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.05.046. DOI

Rupasinghe H., Davis A., Kumar S., Murray B., Zheljazkov V. Sown cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa) as a new source of functional food ingredients and value-added nutraceuticals. Molecules. 2020;25:4078. doi: 10.3390/molecules25184078. PubMed DOI PMC

Ross S.A., Mehmedic Z., Murphy T.P., Elsohly M.A. GC-MS Analysis of the Total Delta9-THC Content of Both Drug- and Fiber-type Cannabis Seeds. J. Anal. Toxicol. 2000;24:715–717. doi: 10.1093/jat/24.8.715. PubMed DOI

Rusu I.E., Vlaic M., Mureşan C.C., Mureşan A.E., Mureşan V., Pop C.R., Chiş M.S., Man S.M., Filip M.R., Onica B.-M., et al. Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) flour-based wheat bread as fortified bakery product. Plants. 2021;10:1558. doi: 10.3390/plants10081558. PubMed DOI PMC

House J., Neufeld J., Leson G. Assessment of protein quality of hemp seed (Cannabis sativa L.) products using the amino acid corrected protein score method. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010;58:11801–11807. doi: 10.1021/jf102636b. PubMed DOI

Montserrat-De La Paz S., Marín-Aguilar F., García-Giménez M., Fernández-Arche M. Hemp oil (Cannabis sativa L.): Analytical and phytochemical characterization of the unsaponifiable fraction. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014;62:1105–1110. doi: 10.1021/jf404278q. PubMed DOI

Steinbach W. Hemp Pralines. 1999. Germany. DE19746830C1. Granted 1999-10-23. Registered 1999-08-12. [(accessed on 18 August 2023)]. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/DE19746830C1/en.

Burton R.A., Andres M., Cole M., Cowley J.M., Augustin M.A. Industrial hemp seed: From the field to value-added food ingredients. J. Cannabis Res. 2022;4:45. doi: 10.1186/s42238-022-00156-7. PubMed DOI PMC

Method of Making Bread Containing Blue Ginseng Seeds: KR100927544B1. In Google Patents. [(accessed on 18 August 2023)]. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/KR100927544B1/en.

Use of Whole Cannabis Sativa Seed Powder for the Preparation of Functional Food with Adjuvant Blood Fat Reduction Therapy. 2007. China. CN100998414B. Granted 2006-12-30. Registered 2007-07-18. [(accessed on 18 August 2023)]. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/CN100998414B/en.

Method of Production of Hemp Milk. 2012. Canada. CA2505350C. Granted 2002-11-14. Registered 2012-05-15. [(accessed on 18 August 2023)]. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/CA2505350C/en.

Carvalho Â., Hansen E., Kayser O., Carlsen S., Stehle F. Designing microorganisms for heterologous cannabinoid biosynthesis. FEMS Yeast Res. 2017;17:37. doi: 10.1093/femsyr/fox037. PubMed DOI PMC

Huestis M.A. Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of the plant cannabinoids, Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol. In: Pertwee R.G., editor. Cannabinoids. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. 1st ed. Springer; Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: 2005. pp. 657–690. PubMed DOI

Garrett E., Hunt C.A. Physicochemical properties, solubility and binding of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol to proteins. J. Pharm. Sci. 1974;63:1056–1064. doi: 10.1002/jps.2600630705. PubMed DOI

Gonçalves J., Rosado T., Soares S., Simão A.Y., Caramelo D., Luís Â., Fernández N., Barroso M., Gallardo E., Duarte A.P. Cannabis and Its Secondary Metabolites: Their use as therapeutic drugs, toxicological aspects and analytical determination. Medicines. 2019;6:31. doi: 10.3390/medicines6010031. PubMed DOI PMC

Grant K., Petroff R., Isoherranen N., Stella N., Burbacher T. Cannabis use during pregnancy: Pharmacokinetics and effects on child development. Pharmacol. Ther. 2018;182:133–151. doi: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.08.014. PubMed DOI PMC

Lucas C., Galettis P., Schneider J. The Pharmacokinetics and the pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2018;84:2477–2482. doi: 10.1111/bcp.13710. PubMed DOI PMC

Degenhardt L., Hall W. the extent of illicit drug use and dependence and their contribution to the global burden of disease. Lancet. 2012;379:55–70. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61138-0. PubMed DOI

Christinat N., Savoy M., Mottier P. Development, validation and application of an LC-MS/MS method for the quantification of 15 cannabinoids in food. Food Chem. 2020;318:126469. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126469. PubMed DOI

Ereño D.P. Global Regulatory Trends in CBD Use in Food and Food Supplements. Regulatory Affairs Professionals Society, 2021; pp. 1–10. [(accessed on 4 December 2023)]. Available online: https://www.raps.org/News-and-Articles/News-Articles/2021/6/Global-regulatory-trends-on-CBD-use-in-food-and-fo.

Ďuriš Nicholsonová L. Availability and Conditions for CBD Sales on the EU Single Market. Priority Question for Written Answer P-000686/2021 to the Commission, Rule 138. European Parliament. 2021. [(accessed on 2 October 2023)]. Available online: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/P-9-2021-000686_EN.html.

Šustková L. Konopí pro Léčebné Použití. State Institute for Drug Control. 2010. [(accessed on 18 August 2023)]. Available online: https://www.sukl.cz/konopi-pro-lecebne-pouziti.

Walch S., Lachenmeier D. Analysis and toxicological evaluation of cannabinoids in hemp food products—A review. Electron. J. Environ. Agric. Food Chem. 2005;4:812–826. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.438133. DOI

Fischedick J., Hazekamp A., Erkelens T., Choi Y., Verpoorte R. Metabolic fingerprinting of Cannabis sativa L., cannabinoids and terpenoids for chemotaxonomy and drug standardization. Phytochemistry. 2010;71:2058–2073. doi: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.10.001. PubMed DOI

Hazekamp A., Fischedick J. Cannabis—From cultivar to chemovar. Drug Test. Anal. 2012;4:660–667. doi: 10.1002/dta.407. PubMed DOI

Chen P., Rogers M. Opportunities and challenges in the development of orally administered cannabis edibles. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 2019;28:7–13. doi: 10.1016/j.cofs.2019.02.005. DOI

Anges T., Dimartino S., Lee S., Goh K., Wen J., Oey I., Ko S., Kwak H. Interfacial structures of whey protein isolate (WPI) and lactoferrin on hydrophobic surfaces in a model system monitored by quartz crystal microbalance with dispersion (QCM-D) and their formation on nanoemulsions. Food Hydrocoll. 2016;56:150–160. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.12.002. DOI

Charoen R., Jangchud A., Jangchud K., Harnsilawat T., Naivikul O., Mcclements D. Influence of Biopolymer Emulsifier Type on Formation and Stability of Rice Bran Oil-in-Water Emulsions. J. Food Sci. 2011;76:165–172. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01959.x. PubMed DOI

Ozturk B., Argin S., Ozilgen M., McClements D. Formation and stabilization of nanoemulsion-based vitamin E delivery systems using natural biopolymers: Whey protein isolate and gum Arabic. Food Chem. 2015;188:256–263. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.05.005. PubMed DOI

Formato M., Crescente G., Scognamiglio M., Fiorentino A., Pecoraro M., Piccolella S., Catauro M., Pacifico S. (-)-Cannabidiolic acid, a still overlooked bioactive compound: An initial review and preliminary research. Molecules. 2020;25:2638. doi: 10.3390/molecules25112638. PubMed DOI PMC

Di Marco Pisciottano I., Guadagnuolo G., Soprano V., Esposito M., Gallo P. Investigation of Δ9-THC and relevant cannabinoids in products from the Italian market: A study by LC-MS/MS of food, beverages and feed. Food Chem. 2021;346:128898. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128898. PubMed DOI

Thomas B.F., ElSohly M.A. Chapter 2—Biosynthesis and pharmacology of phytocannabinoids and related chemical constituents. In: Thomas B.F., ElSohly M.A., editors. The Analytical Chemistry of Cannabis. 1st ed. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2016. pp. 27–41. DOI

Starowicz M., Granvogl M. Trends in food science and technology a review of mead production and physicochemical, toxicological and sensory properties of mead with special emphasis on taste. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2020;106:402–416. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.09.006. DOI

Callaway J.C. Hemp seed as a source of nutrition: A review. Euphytica. 2004;140:65–72. doi: 10.1007/s10681-004-4811-6. DOI

Lopresti A., Smith S., Malvi H., Kodgule R. Investigation of stress relieving and pharmacological effects of ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) extract. Medicine. 2019;98:e17186. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000017186. PubMed DOI PMC

Ramadan M.F. Nutritional value, functional properties and nutraceutical applications of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.): A review. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2007;42:1208–1218. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.01417.x. DOI

Younes M., Aquilina G., Castle L., Engel K.-H., Fowler P., Frutos Fernandez M.J., Fürst P., Gürtler R., Husøy T., Mennes W., et al. Re-evaluation of phosphoric acid–phosphates—di-, tri- and polyphosphates (E 338–341, E 343, E 450–452) as food additives and the safety of proposed extension of use. EFSA J. 2019;17:e05674. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5674. PubMed DOI PMC

Benedec D., Vlase L., Oniga I., Mot A., Damian G., Hanganu D., Duma M., Silaghi-Dumitrescu R. Polyphenolic composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of two Romanian subspecies of Achillea distans Waldst. et Kit. ex Willd. Molecules. 2013;18:8725–8739. doi: 10.3390/molecules18088725. PubMed DOI PMC

Norajit K., Gu B., Ryu G. Effect of hemp powder addition on physicochemical properties and characteristics of extruded rice energy bar. Food Chem. 2011;129:1919–1925. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.06.002. DOI

Small E. Development and classification of Cannabis sativa (marijuana, hemp) in relation to human use. Bot. Rev. 2015;81:189–294. doi: 10.1007/s12229-015-9157-3. DOI

Chocolate Ganaches: Formulation, Processing and Stability in View of the New Production Trends