During parasitoid wasp infection, activated immune cells of Drosophila melanogaster larvae release adenosine to conserve nutrients for immune response. S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) is a methyl group donor for most methylations in the cell and is synthesized from methionine and ATP. After methylation, SAM is converted to S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is further metabolized to adenosine and homocysteine. Here, we show that the SAM transmethylation pathway is up-regulated during immune cell activation and that the adenosine produced by this pathway in immune cells acts as a systemic signal to delay Drosophila larval development and ensure sufficient nutrient supply to the immune system. We further show that the up-regulation of the SAM transmethylation pathway and the efficiency of the immune response also depend on the recycling of adenosine back to ATP by adenosine kinase and adenylate kinase. We therefore hypothesize that adenosine may act as a sensitive sensor of the balance between cell activity, represented by the sum of methylation events in the cell, and nutrient supply. If the supply of nutrients is insufficient for a given activity, adenosine may not be effectively recycled back into ATP and may be pushed out of the cell to serve as a signal to demand more nutrients.

When confronted with an infection, immune cells are rapidly activated to fight the threat. However, like all cells, they require energy to act. While most cells reduce their activity when nutrients are scarce, the immune system cannot afford to do so, as halting its response could put the entire body at risk from infection. It is not clear how immune cells manage this complex nutritional budgeting. Previous studies of fruit fly larvae infected with a parasitoid wasp revealed that immune cells secure extra energy by releasing a molecule called adenosine. This slows the metabolism of non-immune tissues, leaving more nutrients available for immune cells. However, the exact mechanism that immune cells use to produce adenosine remained uncertain. To further examine this process, Nedbalova et al. – who are part of the research group that carried out the previous work – extracted activated immune cells from a parasitoid-infected larva and fed them a labelled amino acid. Tracing this label revealed an increase in the number of chemical units known as methyl groups that had been added to molecules within the cell. This process, known as methylation, can regulate metabolic activity within cells and produces adenosine as a byproduct. Further genetic studies showed that if nutrient supplies were sufficient, the immune cells recycled this adenosine back into ATP, the body’s main energy currency. This suggests that if there were not enough nutrients to do this, the excess adenosine would slow the metabolism of non-immune cells, therefore securing more nutrients for the immune cells. Therefore, Nedbalova et al. hypothesise that these two processes could form the basis of a feedback mechanism that allows the immune cells to regulate their energy demands. Taken together, the findings suggest that adenosine may act as a sensor to reflect immune activity, with it being released when the cells are stimulated and recycled if they have enough energy. This hypothesis still requires further testing but, as adenosine pathways are present across all organisms, it could have implications for many physiological and disease-related processes.

Department of Applied Chemistry Faculty of Agriculture and Technology University of South Bohemia České Budějovice Czech Republic

Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia České Budějovice Czech Republic

Laboratory of Analytical Biochemistry and Metabolomics Institute of Entomology Biology Centre Czech Academy of Sciences České Budějovice Czech Republic

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