OBJECTIVES: This study provides insights into adolescent development during the early medieval period in Austria and offers a point of comparison of the timing of sexual maturation relative to the Imperial Roman and the late medieval periods. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The timing of adolescent development of 89 individuals in two rural cemeteries from the middle to late Avar period (ca. 650-800 ce) was reconstructed using skeletal and dental indicators. This is the first study to employ genetic sex estimation via ancient DNA on all analyzed adolescents, enabling robust assessment of sex-specific patterns of growth and development. RESULTS: Females were on average 1-2 years younger than males at each development stage. Adolescents appear to have developed later during the late Avar period compared to the previous Roman (0.4-2.3 years) and to a lesser extent later than the late medieval period (by up to 1.2 years). DISCUSSION: These developmental differences may reflect the impact of different living conditions in urban and rural settings as well as underlying genetic variation. While general ages of adolescence were comparable between the early and later medieval groups, the earliest observed age of menarche is 3 years later in the later medieval period than in the Roman group. The timing of the physiological transition is consistent with an increase in grave goods in the early medieval sites. Greater standardization in puberty assessment, age, and biological sex estimation is needed to improve cross-population comparability of future adolescence studies from different contexts in the past.

Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics School of Life Sciences Fudan University Shanghai China

Department of Anthropology Natural History Museum Vienna Vienna Austria

Department of Archaeogenetics Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Leipzig Germany

Department of Archaeology and Museology Masaryk University Brno Czechia

Institute for Medieval Research Austrian Academy of Sciences Vienna Austria

School of Archaeology Geography and Environmental Science University of Reading Reading UK

Vienna Doctoral School of Ecology and Evolution University of Vienna Vienna Austria

Zobrazit více v PubMed

AlQahtani, S. J. , Hector M. P., and Liversidge H. M.. 2010. “Brief Communication: The London Atlas of Human Tooth Development and Eruption.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142, no. 3: 481–490. 10.1002/ajpa.21258. PubMed DOI

Anastasiadou, K. , Silva M., Booth T., et al. 2024. “Detection of Chromosomal Aneuploidy in Ancient Genomes.” Communications Biology 7, no. 1: 1–9. 10.1038/s42003-023-05642-z. PubMed DOI PMC

Arthur, N. A. , Gowland R. L., and Redfern R. C.. 2016. “Coming of Age in Roman Britain: Osteological Evidence for Pubertal Timing.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 159, no. 4: 698–713. 10.1002/AJPA.22929. PubMed DOI

Avery, L. C. , and Lewis M.. 2023. “Emerging Adolescence: Current Status and Potential Advances in Bioarchaeology.” Bioarchaeology International 7, no. 2: 103–110.

Avery, L. C. , Prowse T. L., Findlay S., de Seréville‐Niel C. C., and Brickley M. B.. 2023. “Pubertal Timing as an Indicator of Early Life Stress in Roman Italy and Roman Gaul.” American Journal of Biological Anthropology 180, no. 3: 548–560. 10.1002/ajpa.24680. DOI

Baten, J. , Steckel R. H., Larsen C. S., and Roberts C. A.. 2018. “Multidimensional Patterns of European Health, Work, and Violence Over the Past Two Millennia.” In The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work and Violence Over Two Millennia, edited by Steckel R. H., Larsen C. S., Roberts C. A., and Baten J., 381–396. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge Core. 10.1017/9781108379830.015. DOI

Bereczki, Z. , Teschler‐Nicola M., Marcsik A., Meinzer N. J., and Baten J.. 2018. “Growth Disruption in Children: Linear Enamel Hypoplasias.” In The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work and Violence Over Two Millennia, edited by Steckel R. H., Larsen C. S., Roberts C. A., and Baten J., 175–197. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge Core. 10.1017/9781108379830.008. DOI

Betsinger, T. K. , and DeWitte S. N.. 2021. “Toward a Bioarchaeology of Urbanization: Demography, Health, and Behavior in Cities in the Past.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 175, no. S72: 79–118. 10.1002/ajpa.24249. PubMed DOI

Blom, A. A. , Schats R., Hoogland M. L. P., and Waters‐Rist A.. 2021. “Coming of Age in The Netherlands: An Osteological Assessment of Puberty in a Rural Dutch Post‐Medieval Community.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 174, no. 3: 463–478. 10.1002/AJPA.24161. PubMed DOI

Bogin, B. 2011. “Puberty and Adolescence: An Evolutionary Perspective.” In Encyclopedia of Adolescence, 275–286. 10.1016/b978-0-12-373951-3.00033-8. DOI

Bogin, B. 2020. Patterns of Human Growth. Vol. 88. Cambridge University Press.

Bogin, B. , and Smith B. H.. 1996. “Evolution of the Human Life Cycle.” American Journal of Human Biology 8, no. 6: 703–716. 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(1996)8:6<703::AID-AJHB2>3.0.CO;2-U. PubMed DOI

Brown, T. , and Brown K.. 2011. Biomolecular Archaeology: An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 10.1002/9781444392449. DOI

Buehl, C. C. , and Pyle S. I.. 1942. “The Use of Age at First Appearance of Threeossification Centers in Determining the Skeletal Status of Children.” Journal of Pediatrics 21, no. 3: 335–342. 10.1016/S0022-3476(42)80026-8. DOI

Buikstra, J. E. , and Ubelaker D.. 1994. Standards for Data Collection From Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series, 44. Arkansas Archeological Survey.

Canelón, S. P. , and Boland M. R.. 2020. “A Systematic Literature Review of Factors Affecting the Timing of Menarche: The Potential for Climate Change to Impact Women's Health.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 5: 1703. 10.3390/ijerph17051703. PubMed DOI PMC

Charles, Y. P. , Daures J.‐P., de Rosa V., and Diméglio A.. 2006. “Progression Risk of Idiopathic Juvenile Scoliosis During Pubertal Growth.” Spine 31, no. 17: 1933–1942. 10.1097/01.brs.0000229230.68870.97. PubMed DOI

Cohen, J. 1988. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd ed. Routledge. 10.4324/9780203771587. DOI

Daim, F. 1987. “Das Awarische Gräberfeld von Leobersdorf, Niederösterreich.” In Studien Zur Archäologie Der Awaren 3. Veröffentlichung Der Kommission Für Frühmittelalterforschung 10. Denkschriften Der Österreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften, Phil.‐Hist., Klasse 194 (Band 1), Verlag Der Österreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften.

Daim, F. , Sauer R., and Richter K.. 2024. “Hard Facts and (Exciting) Assumptions: New Approaches in Archaeology.” Studia Academica Šumenensia 11, no. 1: 107–141.

Daim, F. , Stadler P., Pohl W., et al. 2023. Auf der Suche Nach den Feinen Unterschieden: Die Awarischen Gräberfelder von Leobersdorf und Mödling–An der Goldenen Stiege. Propylaeum. 10.11588/propylaeum.1280. DOI

DeWitte, S. N. , and Lewis M.. 2020. “Medieval Menarche: Changes in Pubertal Timing Before and After the Black Death.” American Journal of Human Biology 33: e23439. 10.1002/ajhb.23439. PubMed DOI

Doe, D. M. , Candelas González N., Gutiérrez González J. A., Cambra‐Moo O., and González Martín A.. 2025. “Unlocking Adolescence: A Novel Approach to Approximate the Sociocultural Implications of Puberty in Medieval Spain.” American Journal of Human Biology 37, no. 5: e70054. 10.1002/ajhb.70054. PubMed DOI PMC

Doe, D. M. , Rascón Pérez J., Cambra‐Moo O., Campo Martín M., and González Martín A.. 2019. “Assessing Pubertal Stage in Adolescent Remains: An Investigation of the San Nicolás Maqbara Burial Site (Murcia, Spain).” Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 11, no. 2: 541–554.

Ellison, P. T. , Reiches M. W., Shattuck‐Faegre H., et al. 2012. “Puberty as a Life History Transition.” Annals of Human Biology 39, no. 5: 352–360. PubMed

Falys, C. , and Lewis M.. 2020. “Puberty in the Past.” Archaeologist 109: 79109. 10.11588/cifatamag.2020.109.79910. DOI

Frisancho, A. R. , Garn S. M., and Rohmann C. G.. 1969. “Age at Menarche: A New Method of Prediction and Retrospective Assessment Based on Hand X‐Rays.” Human Biology 41, no. 1: 42–50. PubMed

Gluckman, P. D. , and Hanson M. A.. 2006. “Evolution, Development and Timing of Puberty.” Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 17, no. 1: 7–12. 10.1016/j.tem.2005.11.006. PubMed DOI

Gnecchi‐Ruscone, G. A. , Rácz Z., Samu L., et al. 2024. “Network of Large Pedigrees Reveals Social Practices of Avar Communities.” Nature 629, no. 8011: 376–383. 10.1038/s41586-024-07312-4. PubMed DOI PMC

Gnecchi‐Ruscone, G. A. , Szécsényi‐Nagy A., Koncz I., et al. 2022. “Ancient Genomes Reveal Origin and Rapid Trans‐Eurasian Migration of 7th Century Avar Elites.” Cell 185, no. 8: 1402–1413.e21. 10.1016/j.cell.2022.03.007. PubMed DOI PMC

Gowland, R. , Stewart N. A., Crowder K. D., et al. 2021. “Sex Estimation of Teeth at Different Developmental Stages Using Dimorphic Enamel Peptide Analysis.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 174, no. 4: 859–869. 10.1002/ajpa.24231. PubMed DOI

Greulich, W. W. , and Pyle S. I.. 1959. Radiographic Atlas of Skeletal Development of the Handandwrist. Stanford University Press.

Hägg, U. , and Taranger J.. 1982. “Maturation Indicators and the Pubertal Growth Spurt.” American Journal of Orthodontics 82, no. 4: 299–309. PubMed

Ham, A. C. , and DeWitte S. N.. 2022. “Pubertal Timing as a Measure of Health and Well‐Being and a Bridge Between Past and Present.” Bioarchaeology International 7, no. 2: 189–209. 10.5744/bi.2022.0012. DOI

Hermanussen, M. , Lehmann A., and Scheffler C.. 2012. “Psychosocial Pressure and Menarche: A Review of Historic Evidence for Social Amenorrhea.” Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey 67, no. 4: 237–241. 10.1097/OGX.0b013e31824c94ad. PubMed DOI

Hewitt, D. 1963. “Pattern of Correlations in the Skeleton of the Growing Hand.” Annals of Human Genetics 27, no. 2: 157–169. PubMed

Holdsworth, E. A. , and Appleton A. A.. 2020. “Adverse Childhood Experiences and Reproductive Strategies in a Contemporary U.S. Population.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 171, no. 1: 37–49. 10.1002/ajpa.23967. PubMed DOI

Itriyeva, K. 2022. “The Normal Menstrual Cycle.” Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care 52, no. 5: 101183. PubMed

Jacometti, V. , Sato C. M., Meireles D. A., and da Silva R. H. A.. 2023. “Age Estimation Using London Atlas Methodology: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis.” Forensic Science International 342: 111532. 10.1016/j.forsciint.2022.111532. PubMed DOI

Lewis, M. E. 2007. The Bioarchaeology of Children: Perspectives From Biological and Forensic Anthropology. Vol. 50. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511542473. DOI

Lewis, M. E. 2016. “Work and the Adolescent in Medieval England AD 900–1550: The Osteological Evidence.” Medieval Archaeology 60, no. 1: 138–171.

Lewis, M. E. 2018. “Children in Bioarchaeology.” In Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton, edited by Katzenberg M. A. and Grauer A. L., 117–144. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 10.1002/9781119151647.ch4. DOI

Lewis, M. E. 2022. “Exploring Adolescence as a Key Life History Stage in Bioarchaeology.” American Journal of Biological Anthropology 179, no. 4: 519–534.

Lewis, M. E. , French J. C., Rossoni‐Notter E., et al. 2025. “An Assessment of Puberty Status in Adolescents From the European Upper Paleolithic.” Journal of Human Evolution 198: 103577. 10.1016/j.jhevol.2024.103577. PubMed DOI

Lewis, M. E. , Shapland F., and Watts R.. 2016a. “The Influence of Chronic Conditions and the Environment on Pubertal Development. An Example From Medieval England.” International Journal of Paleopathology 12: 1–10. 10.1016/J.IJPP.2015.10.004. PubMed DOI

Lewis, M. , Shapland F., and Watts R.. 2016b. “On the Threshold of Adulthood: A New Approach for the Use of Maturation Indicators to Assess Puberty in Adolescents From Medieval England.” American Journal of Human Biology 28, no. 1: 48–56. 10.1002/ajhb.22761. PubMed DOI

Mancini, A. , Magnotto J. C., and Abreu A. P.. 2022. “Genetics of Pubertal Timing.” Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 36, no. 1: 101618. 10.1016/j.beem.2022.101618. PubMed DOI PMC

McDonald, J. A. , Eng S. M., Dina O. O., Schooling C. M., and Terry M. B.. 2016. “Infection and Pubertal Timing: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease 7, no. 6: 636–651. 10.1017/S2040174416000313. PubMed DOI

McNamara, J. A. , and Franchi L.. 2018. “The Cervical Vertebral Maturation Method: A User's Guide.” Angle Orthodontist 88, no. 2: 133–143. 10.2319/111517-787.1. PubMed DOI PMC

Meinzer, N. J. , Steckel R. H., and Baten J.. 2018. “Agricultural Specialization, Urbanization, Workload, and Stature.” In The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work and Violence Over Two Millennia, edited by Steckel R. H., Larsen C. S., Roberts C. A., and Baten J., 231–252. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge Core. 10.1017/9781108379830.010. DOI

Moorrees, C. F. A. , Fanning E. A., and Hunt E. E. Jr. 1963. “Age Variation of Formation Stages for Ten Permanent Teeth.” Journal of Dental Research 42, no. 6: 1490–1502. PubMed

Neal, K. M. , Shirley E. D., and Kiebzak G. M.. 2018. “Maturity Indicators and Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis.” Spine 43, no. 7: E406–E412. PubMed

Negrini, S. , Hresko T. M., O'Brien J. P., Price N., SOSORT Boards , and SRS Non‐Operative Committee . 2015. “Recommendations for Research Studies on Treatment of Idiopathic Scoliosis: Consensus 2014 Between SOSORT and SRS Non–Operative Management Committee.” Scoliosis 10: 1–12. 10.1186/s13013-014-0025-4. PubMed DOI PMC

Papathanasiou, A. , Meinzer N. J., Williams K. D., and Larsen C. S.. 2018. “History of Anemia and Related Nutritional Deficiencies: Evidence From Cranial Porosities.” In The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work and Violence Over Two Millennia, edited by Steckel R. H., Larsen C. S., Roberts C. A., and Baten J., 198–230. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge Core. 10.1017/9781108379830.009. DOI

Perry, M. 2005. “Redefining Childhood Through Bioarchaeology: Toward an Archaeological and Biological Understanding of Children in Antiquity.” Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 15: 89–111. 10.1525/ap3a.2005.15.89. DOI

Petraitiene, I. , Valuniene M., Jariene K., Seibokaite A., Albertsson‐Wikland K., and Verkauskiene R.. 2020. “Sex Hormones, Gonad Size, and Metabolic Profile in Adolescent Girls Born Small for Gestational Age With Catch‐Up Growth.” Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology 33, no. 2: 125–132. 10.1016/j.jpag.2019.11.001. PubMed DOI

Pohl, W. 2018. The Avars. Cornell University Press.

Redfern, R. C. 2018. “Blind to Chains? The Potential of Bioarchaeology for Identifying the Enslaved of Roman Britain.” Britannia 49: 251–282. 10.1017/S0068113X18000119. DOI

Roberts, C. A. 2009. “Health and Welfare in Medieval England: The Human Skeletal Remains Contextualised.” In Reflections: 50 Years of Medieval Archaeology, edited by Gilchrist R. and Reynolds A., 307–325. Taylor and Francis.

Sanchez, J. , and Hoppa R. D.. 2023. “Is Adulthood Required? Examining the Accuracy of Pelvic Sex Estimation Throughout Pubertal Growth.” Bioarchaeology International 7, no. 2: 173–188.

Sanders, J. O. , Browne R. H., McConnell S. J., Margraf S. A., Cooney T. E., and Finegold D. N.. 2007. “Maturity Assessment and Curve Progression in Girls With Idiopathic Scoliosis.” Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (American Volume) 89, no. 1: 64–73. 10.2106/JBJS.F.00067. PubMed DOI

Sanders, J. O. , Khoury J. G., Kishan S., et al. 2008. “Predicting Scoliosis Progression From Skeletal Maturity: A Simplified Classification During Adolescence.” Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (American Volume) 90, no. 3: 540–553. 10.2106/JBJS.G.00004. PubMed DOI

Šešelj, M. , Sherwood R. J., and Konigsberg L. W.. 2019. “Timing of Development of the Permanent Mandibular Dentition: New Reference Values From the Fels Longitudinal Study.” Anatomical Record 302, no. 10: 1733–1753. 10.1002/ar.24108. PubMed DOI

Shapland, F. , and Lewis M. E.. 2013. “Brief Communication: A Proposed Osteological Method for the Estimation of Pubertal Stage in Human Skeletal Remains.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 151, no. 2: 302–310. 10.1002/ajpa.22268. PubMed DOI

Shapland, F. , and Lewis M. E.. 2014. “Brief Communication: A Proposed Method for the Assessment of Pubertal Stage in Human Skeletal Remains Using Cervical Vertebrae Maturation.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 153, no. 1: 144–153. 10.1002/ajpa.22416. PubMed DOI

Sitoula, P. , Verma K., Holmes L. J., et al. 2015. “Prediction of Curve Progression in Idiopathic Scoliosis: Validation of the Sanders Skeletal Maturity Staging System.” Spine 40, no. 13: 1006–1013. 10.1097/BRS.0000000000000952. PubMed DOI

Šlaus, M. 2008. “Osteological and Dental Markers of Health in the Transition From the Late Antique to the Early Medieval Period in Croatia.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 136, no. 4: 455–469. 10.1002/ajpa.20829. PubMed DOI

Spake, L. , Hoppa R. D., Blau S., and Cardoso H. F. V.. 2022. “Biological Mortality Bias in Diaphyseal Growth of Contemporary Children: Implications for Paleoauxology.” American Journal of Biological Anthropology 178, no. 1: 89–107. 10.1002/ajpa.24486. PubMed DOI

Steckel, R. , Larsen C., Roberts C., and Baten J.. 2018. “The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work and Violence Over Two Millennia.” In Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/9781108379830. DOI

Stewart, N. A. , Gerlach R. F., Gowland R. L., Gron K. J., and Montgomery J.. 2017. “Sex Determination of Human Remains From Peptides in Tooth Enamel.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114, no. 52: 13649–13654. 10.1073/pnas.1714926115. PubMed DOI PMC

Stull, K. E. , Cirillo L. E., Cole S. J., and Hulse C. N.. 2020. “Subadult Sex Estimation and KidStats.” In Sex Estimation of the Human Skeleton, 219–242. Elsevier.

Tanner, J. M. , Healy M. J. R., Cameron N., and Goldstein H.. 2001. Assessment of Skeletal Maturity and Prediction of Adult Height (TW3 Method). W.B. Saunders.

Villamor, E. , and Jansen E. C.. 2016. “Nutritional Determinants of the Timing of Puberty.” Annual Review of Public Health 37, no. 1: 33–46. 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122606. PubMed DOI

Wang, K. , Tobias B., Pany‐Kucera D., et al. 2025. “Ancient DNA Reveals Reproductive Barrier Despite Shared Avar‐Period Culture.” Nature 638: 1–8. 10.1038/s41586-024-08418-5. PubMed DOI PMC