Histological terminology of the female genital organs is currently a part of the internationally accepted nomenclature Terminologia Histologica (TH), the latest edition of which dates back to 2008. Many new discoveries have been documented within 16 years since then, and many discrepancies have been found. This paper aims to revise the terminology from clinical and educational perspectives comprehensively. The authors thoroughly searched the current edition of "Terminologia Histologica: International Terms for Human Cytology and Histology," focusing on missing and controversial terms in the chapter Female genital system. The authors identified six controversial and ambiguous terms and four missing important histological terms. The authors also discussed the addition of less used eponymic terms in the histological description of female genital organs like Hamperl cells, Popescu cells, Kroemer lacunae, Balbiani bodies, Call-Exner bodies, membrane of Slavianski, nabothian cysts, or anogenital sweat glands of van der Putte. We expect the second and revised edition of the TH to be published soon and hope that the Federative International Program on Anatomical Terminology will approve and incorporate all these propositions and suggestions. We also strongly recommend using the official internationally accepted Latin and English histological nomenclature-the TH, either in oral or written form, both in theoretical and clinical medicine.

• Keywords
• Eponyms, Female genital system, Histological controversies, Ovarian follicles, Telocytes, Terminologia Histologica, Tubal lymphatic lacunae, Uterine NK cells,
• MeSH
• Anatomy MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Terminology as Topic * MeSH
• Genitalia, Female * anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Female MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

This article is the fourth and last part of a series aimed at extending and correcting the anatomical nomenclature. Because of the rapid development of internet and the use of electronic formats in communication in anatomy, embryology, histology, medical education, and clinical medicine, an appropriate, precise, and concise anatomical nomenclature is required. Such tool enables to avoid any potential confusion and possible scientific/medical mistakes. The up-to-date official anatomical terminology, Terminologia Anatomica, is available longer than 20 years and needs to be refined and extended. The authors have collected and listed 210 terms and completed them with definitions and/or explanations. We aimed to start a discussion about their potential incorporation into the new revised version of the Terminologia Anatomica. This article is primarily focused on the vessels of the human body (arteries, veins, and lymphatic system).

• MeSH
• Anatomy * MeSH
• Blood Vessels anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Terminology as Topic MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH

Variant anatomy, which is an integral part of anatomical science, is related to abnormalities in the human body structure. Our understanding of variant anatomy is based on thousand years of anatomical experience. These abnormalities generally do not interfere with the function of the human body and do not typically manifest as pathological nosological units. However, under certain conditions, these abnormalities can worsen existing pathological states or even evoke new ones. Understanding variant anatomy is a basic skill not only of mere anatomists, but also of clinicians who work in fields involving both diagnostic techniques and therapeutic interventions. To gain and retain a good knowledge of the most frequent and clinically relevant anatomical variations, a simple, clear, and exactly defined nomenclature of variant structures is needed. A list of items comprising variant anatomy, which have been incorporated into the internationally accepted nomenclatures Terminologia Anatomica (1998) and Terminologia Neuroanatomica (2017), is described and analyzed. Examples of the most common anatomical variations related to terminology are mentioned, and variant anatomy as a whole and its role in understanding current anatomy are discussed.

• Keywords
• anatomical variations, anatomy, nomenclature, terminology, variability,
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH

This article is the third part of a series aimed at correcting and extending the anatomical nomenclature. Communication in clinical medicine as well as in medical education is extensively composed of anatomical, histological, and embryological terms. Thus, to avoid any confusion, it is essential to have a concise, exact, perfect and correct anatomical nomenclature. The Terminologia Anatomica (TA) was published 20 years ago and during this period several revisions have been made. Nevertheless, some important anatomical structures are still not included in the nomenclature. Here we list a collection of 156 defined and explained technical terms related to the anatomical structures of the human body focusing on the digestive, respiratory, urinary and genital systems. These terms are set for discussion to be added into the new version of the TA.

• MeSH
• Anatomy trends   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Human Body * MeSH
• Terminology as Topic * MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Animals MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH

Anatomical nomenclature is the main tool of communication in morphology, anatomy and other medical disciplines as well as in medical education, and thus needs to be exact, flawless, elaborate and correct. The Terminologia Anatomica (TA) is a thorough and extensive list of anatomical terms and their definitions, and the current standard for human anatomical terminology. Although several revisions to the TA have been made in the last 20 years, some important anatomical structures are still not included. This article is aimed at correcting and extending the anatomical nomenclature described in the TA. We gathered and presented a list of anatomical terms, with their definitions and explanations, to provoke a discussion about correcting and extending the TA. Our list comprises of 96 terms related to the locomotor system of the human body, i.e., the bones, joints, muscles and related structures.

• MeSH
• Anatomy standards   MeSH
• Joints anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Bone and Bones anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Spine anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Movement MeSH
• Muscles anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Terminology as Topic * MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH
• Review MeSH

PURPOSE: The aim of this article is to extend and revise the sections of Terminologia Anatomica (TA) dealing with the lower limb structures and to justify the use of newly proposed anatomical terms in clinical medicine, education, and research. METHODS: Anatomical terms were gathered during our educational experience from anatomical textbooks and journals and compared with the four previous editions of the official Latin anatomical nomenclature. RESULTS: The authors summarise 270 terms with their definitions and explanations for both constant and variable morphological structures (bones, joints, muscles, vessels, nerves and superficial structures) of the hip, thigh, knee, leg, ankle, and foot completed with several grammatical remarks and some general anatomical terms. CONCLUSION: The proposed terms should be discussed in wider anatomical community and potentially added to next edition of the TA.

• Keywords
• Anatomical nomenclature, Anatomical terminology, Lower limb, Terminologia Anatomica, Variation,
• MeSH
• Lower Extremity anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Terminology as Topic * MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

PURPOSE: The aim of this article is to revise and extend the existing sections of Terminologia Anatomica dealing with the upper limb structures, which nomenclature belongs to its most neglected and not developing parts, and to justify the use of the proposed anatomical terms in the clinical practice, research, and education. METHODS: A sample collected from own educational and research experience was matched in the main anatomical textbooks as well as old and recent anatomical journals and compared with four versions of the official Latin anatomical nomenclatures. RESULTS: The authors summarize here 145 terms, completed with their definitions or explanations, concerning both constant and variable (inconstant) morphological structures (bones, joints, muscles, vessels, and nerves) of the pectoral girdle, arm, cubital region, forearm, wrist, and hand, completed with some grammar remarks and several general terms. CONCLUSION: After a broad discussion on this topic, the Terminologia Anatomica should be revised and extend with the listed terms (or their equivalents).

• Keywords
• Anatomical nomenclature, Anatomical terminology, Terminologia Anatomica, Upper limb, Variation,
• MeSH
• Upper Extremity anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Terminology as Topic * MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

Nomenclature of the general and variant anatomy belongs to the most neglected parts of the Latin anatomical nomenclature in Terminologia Anatomica. Although many important small structures are included in Terminologia Anatomica, when describing and teaching particular anatomy of any part of the human body, the general terms are necessary, such as planes, lines and flexion grooves. Moreover, Terminologia Anatomica contains only 149 terms of variant structures, enlisted in the parentheses to differentiate them from constant ones. They are only a rather representative selection and some more should be added, both from the educational and clinical point of view. The authors present some terms, completed with their definitions or explanations concerning the general and variant anatomy to evoke broader discussion on this topic which should issue in incorporation of proposed terms (or their equivalents) into the Terminologia Anatomica.

• Keywords
• Anatomical nomenclature, Anatomical terminology, Anatomical variations, General anatomy,
• MeSH
• Anatomic Variation * MeSH
• Anatomy standards   MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Terminology as Topic * MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

PURPOSE: Proximal femoral fractures are among the most commonly sustained fractures. The current treatment of stable proximal femoral fractures located in trochanteric region primarily involves the use of two systems: extramedullary dynamic hip screws and intramedullary hip nails. Given that these fractures are mainly found in the elderly population, the necessity of a repeat, due to failure of the first, may jeopardize the patient's life. Decisive factors contributing to the healing of a fracture (or the failure thereof) include fracture pattern, technical implementation of the operation (i.e., position of the implant), implant's properties and its changes in relation to the surrounding bone tissue during loading. Each screw insertion variant results in damage to various load-bearing bone structures, which can be expected to influence healing quality and stability of newly formed bone. METHOD: With the aid of a numerical model and finite element methods, the authors analyzed several different positions of IMHN/PFH-nails in the proximal femur, with the objective of determining positions with an increased risk of failure. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: In model situations, it has been shown that in stable fractures results do not depend on absolutely precise positioning and small deflections in the nails and neck screws positions do not significantly increase the risk of failure for the entire fixation. Damage to load-bearing structures relative to various implant placements does not impact the resultant overall fixation stability. Therefore, it is not necessary to re-introduce implants in the ideal position, which can lead to reduced patient radiation doses during surgery.

• Keywords
• Bone fixation, Complications, Finite element method analyses, Intramedullary hip nail, Stable pertrochanteric fracture,
• MeSH
• Finite Element Analysis MeSH
• Biomechanical Phenomena MeSH
• Femur injuries   surgery   MeSH
• Hip Fractures surgery   MeSH
• Fracture Fixation, Intramedullary instrumentation   methods   MeSH
• Bone Nails * MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Treatment Failure MeSH
• Risk Factors MeSH
• Aged MeSH
• Models, Theoretical MeSH
• Weight-Bearing MeSH
• Check Tag
• Humans MeSH
• Aged MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH

The aim of the study was to evaluate the terminal segmentation of the axillary artery and to present four cases of anomalous branching of the axillary artery, the superficial brachial artery (arteria brachialis superficialis), which is defined as the brachial artery that runs superficially to the median nerve. Totally, 130 cadaveric upper arms embalmed by classical formaldehyde technique from collections of the Department of Anatomy, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, were macroscopically dissected with special focus on the branching arrangement of the axillary artery. The most distal part of the axillary artery (infrapectoral part) terminated in four cases as a bifurcation into two terminal branches: the superficial brachial artery and profunda brachii artery, denominated according to their relation to the median nerve. The profunda brachii artery primarily gave rise to the main branches of the infrapectoral part of the axillary artery. The superficial brachial artery descended to the cubital fossa where it assumed the usual course of the brachial artery in two cases and in the other two cases its branches (the radial and ulnar arteries) passed superficially to the flexors. The incidence of the superficial brachial artery in our study was 5% of cases.The reported incidence is a bit contradictory, from 0.12% to 25% of cases. The anatomical knowledge of the axillary region is of crucial importance for neurosurgeons and specialists using the radiodiagnostic techniques, particularly in cases involving traumatic injuries. The improved knowledge would allow more accurate diagnostic interpretations and surgical treatment.

• MeSH
• Axillary Artery abnormalities   anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Brachial Artery abnormalities   anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Radial Artery abnormalities   anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Ulnar Artery abnormalities   anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Adult MeSH
• Upper Extremity blood supply   MeSH
• Middle Aged MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Cadaver MeSH
• Median Nerve anatomy & histology   MeSH
• Aged, 80 and over MeSH
• Aged MeSH
• Check Tag
• Adult MeSH
• Middle Aged MeSH
• Humans MeSH
• Male MeSH
• Aged, 80 and over MeSH
• Aged MeSH
• Female MeSH
• Publication type
• Journal Article MeSH