BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The genome size of an organism is determined by its capacity to tolerate genome expansion, given the species' life strategy and the limits of a particular environment, and the ability for retrotransposon suppression and/or removal. In some giant-genomed bulb geophytes, this tolerance is explained by their ability to pre-divide cells in the dormant stages or by the selective advantage of larger cells in the rapid growth of their fleshy body. In this study, a test shows that the tendency for genome size expansion is a more universal feature of geophytes, and is a subject in need of more general consideration. METHODS: Differences in monoploid genome sizes were compared using standardized phylogenetically independent contrasts in 47 sister pairs of geophytic and non-geophytic taxa sampled across all the angiosperms. The genome sizes of 96 species were adopted from the literature and 53 species were newly measured using flow cytometry with propidium iodide staining. KEY RESULTS: The geophytes showed increased genome sizes compared with their non-geophytic relatives, regardless of the storage organ type and regardless of whether or not vernal geophytes, polyploids or annuals were included in the analyses. CONCLUSIONS: The universal tendency of geophytes to possess a higher genome size suggests the presence of a universal mechanism allowing for genome expansion. It is assumed that this is primarily due to the nutrient and energetic independence of geophytes perhaps allowing continuous synthesis of DNA, which is known to proceed in the extreme cases of vernal geophytes even in dormant stages. This independence may also be assumed as a reason for allowing large genomes in some parasitic plants, as well as the nutrient limitation of small genomes of carnivorous plants.

• Klíčová slova
• Cx-value, Genome size evolution, energy reserves, ephemeroids, flow cytometry, life form, spring geophytes, storage organ,
• MeSH
• délka genomu genetika   MeSH
• DNA rostlinná genetika   MeSH
• genetická variace MeSH
• genom rostlinný genetika   MeSH
• kořeny rostlin genetika   MeSH
• Magnoliopsida genetika   MeSH
• molekulární evoluce MeSH
• polyploidie MeSH
• průtoková cytometrie MeSH
• retroelementy MeSH
• roční období MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• srovnávací studie MeSH
• Názvy látek
• DNA rostlinná MeSH
• retroelementy MeSH

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Genome size is known to affect various plant traits such as stomatal size, seed mass, and flower or shoot phenology. However, these associations are not well understood for species with very large genomes, which are laregly represented by geophytic plants. No detailed associations are known between DNA base composition and genome size or species ecology. METHODS: Genome sizes and GC contents were measured in 219 geophytes together with tentative morpho-anatomical and ecological traits. KEY RESULTS: Increased genome size was associated with earliness of flowering and tendency to grow in humid conditions, and there was a positive correlation between an increase in stomatal size in species with extremely large genomes. Seed mass of geophytes was closely related to their ecology, but not to genomic parameters. Genomic DNA GC content showed a unimodal relationship with genome size but no relationship with species ecology. CONCLUSIONS: Evolution of genome size in geophytes is closely related to their ecology and phenology and is also associated with remarkable changes in DNA base composition. Although geophytism together with producing larger cells appears to be an advantageous strategy for fast development of an organism in seasonal habitats, the drought sensitivity of large stomata may restrict the occurrence of geophytes with very large genomes to regions not subject to water stress.

• MeSH
• délka genomu * MeSH
• DNA rostlinná analýza   genetika   MeSH
• ekologie MeSH
• ekosystém MeSH
• genom rostlinný * MeSH
• molekulární evoluce MeSH
• průduchy rostlin anatomie a histologie   MeSH
• roční období MeSH
• rostliny anatomie a histologie   genetika   MeSH
• semena rostlinná anatomie a histologie   MeSH
• zastoupení bazí MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Názvy látek
• DNA rostlinná MeSH

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The idea that genome (size) evolution in eukaryotes could be driven by environmental factors is still vigorously debated. In extant plants, genome size correlates positively with stomatal size, leading to the idea that conditions enabling the existence of large stomata in fossil plants also supported growth of their genome size. We test this inductive assumption in drought-adapted, prostrate-leaved Cape (South Africa) geophytes where, compared with their upright-leaved geophytic ancestors, stomata develop in a favourably humid microclimate formed underneath their leaves. METHODS: Stomatal parameters (leaf cuticle imprints) and genome size (flow cytometry) were measured in 16 closely related geophytic species pairs from seven plant families. In each pair, representing a different genus, we contrasted a prostrate-leaved species with its upright-leaved phylogenetic relative, the latter whose stomata are exposed to the ambient arid climate. KEY RESULTS: Except for one, all prostrate-leaves species had larger stomata, and in 13 of 16 pairs they also had larger genomes than their upright-leaved relatives. Stomatal density and theoretical maximum conductance were less in prostrate-leaved species with small guard cells (<1 pL) but showed no systematic difference in species pairs with larger guard cells (>1 pL). Giant stomata were observed in the prostrate-leaved Satyrium bicorne (89-137 µm long), despite its relatively small genome (2C = 9 Gbp). CONCLUSIONS: Our results imply that climate, through selection on stomatal size, might be able to drive genome size evolution in plants. The data support the idea that plants from 'greenhouse' geological periods with large stomata might have generally had larger genome sizes when compared with extant plants, though this might not have been solely due to higher atmospheric CO2 in these periods but could also have been due to humid conditions prevailing at fossil deposit sites.

• Klíčová slova
• Cape Floristic Region, South Africa, carbon dioxide, flow cytometry, fossil plants, genome size evolution, geophyte, paleoclimate, stomatal size,
• MeSH
• délka genomu MeSH
• fylogeneze MeSH
• genom rostlinný genetika   MeSH
• listy rostlin MeSH
• průduchy rostlin genetika   MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Geografické názvy
• Jihoafrická republika MeSH

The establishment and success of polyploids are thought to often be facilitated by ecological niche differentiation from diploids. Unfortunately, most studies compared diploids and polyploids, ignoring variation in ploidy level in polyploids. To fill this gap, we performed a large-scale study of 11,163 samples from 1,283 populations of the polyploid perennial geophyte Allium oleraceum with reported mixed-ploidy populations, revealed distribution ranges of cytotypes, assessed their niches and explored the pattern of niche change with increasing ploidy level. Altogether, six ploidy levels (3x-8x) were identified. The most common were pentaploids (53.6%) followed by hexaploids (22.7%) and tetraploids (21.6%). Higher cytotype diversity was found at lower latitudes than at higher latitudes (>52° N), where only tetraploids and pentaploids occurred. We detected 17.4% of mixed-ploidy populations, usually as a combination of two, rarely of three, cytotypes. The majority of mixed-ploidy populations were found in zones of sympatry of the participating cytotypes, suggesting they have arisen through migration (secondary contact zone). Using coarse-grained variables (climate, soil), we found evidence of both niche expansion and innovation in tetraploids related to triploids, whereas higher ploidy levels showed almost zero niche expansion, but a trend of increased niche unfilling of tetraploids. Niche unfilling in higher ploidy levels was caused by a contraction of niche envelopes toward lower continentality of the climate and resulted in a gradual decrease of niche breadth and a gradual shift in niche optima. Field-recorded data indicated wide habitat breadth of tetraploids and pentaploids, but also a pattern of increasing synanthropy in higher ploidy levels. Wide niche breadth of tetra- and pentaploids might be related to their multiple origins from different environmental conditions, higher "age", and retained sexuality, which likely preserve their adaptive potential. In contrast, other cytotypes with narrower niches are mostly asexual, probably originating from a limited range of contrasting environments. Persistence of local ploidy mixtures could be enabled by the perenniality of A. oleraceum and its prevalence of vegetative reproduction, facilitating the establishment and decreasing exclusion of minority cytotype due to its reproductive costs. Vegetative reproduction might also significantly accelerate colonization of new areas, including recolonization of previously glaciated areas.

• Klíčová slova
• chromosome numbers, cytogeography, ecological niche, flow cytometry, geophytes, ploidy coexistence, polyploidy,
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH

Experimental studies that explore the possible causes of ploidy distributions and niche differentiation are rare. Increased competitive ability may be advantageous for survival in dense vegetation and may strongly affect local and regional abundances of cytotypes and potentially contribute to invasion success. We compared survival, growth and reproduction of plants originating from bulbils of three cytotypes (2n = 4x, 5x, 6x) of Allium oleraceum growing with and without a competitor (Arrhenatherum elatius). There was a strong negative effect of competition but no effect of ploidy or ploidy × competition on survivorship, height and total dry mass of A. oleraceum, i.e. no support for different competitive abilities of the ploidy levels. However, slightly different responses of populations to competition treatments within all cytotypes suggest differentiation within cytotypes. Under competition, plant survivorship was low, surviving plants were small, had low dry mass and produced neither sexual nor asexual propagules. Without competition, plant survivorship was high, and cytotypes differed in three traits after 2 year's growth: dry mass of flowers, number of flowers and ratio of the dry mass of sexual to asexual propagules all decreased with increasing ploidy level. We additionally tested tetra- and pentaploids as to whether plants originating from different types of propagule (bulbils, seeds) differ in survivorship, growth and reproduction when growing with and without a competitor. Plants originating from bulbils had higher survivorship, were more robust, flowered earlier and produced more propagules when compared to plants originating from seeds and grown without competition. Under competition, differences in performance between plants originating from seeds and bulbils mostly disappeared, with higher survivorship only for plants originating from bulbils.

• Klíčová slova
• Adaptation, Arrhenatherum elatius, bulbils, competition, geophyte, phenotypic plasticity, polyploidy, seeds,
• MeSH
• Allium genetika   růst a vývoj   fyziologie   MeSH
• květy růst a vývoj   MeSH
• ploidie * MeSH
• rostlinné geny MeSH
• semena rostlinná růst a vývoj   MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH

Many phenological studies have shown that spring geophytes are very sensitive to climate change, responding by shifting flowering and fruiting dates. However, there is a gap in knowledge about climatic drivers of their distributions and range shifts under climate change. Here we aimed to estimate climate niche shifts for four widely distributed and common geophytes of the nemoral zone of Europe (Anemone nemorosa, Anemone ranunculoides, Convallaria majalis and Maianthemum bifolium) and to assess the threat level under various climate change scenarios. Using MaxEnt species distribution models and future climate change scenarios we found that the precipitation of the warmest quarter was the most important factor shaping their ranges. All species studied will experience more loss in the 2061-2080 period than in 2041-2060, and under more pessimistic scenarios. M. bifolium will experience the highest loss, followed by A. nemorosa, A. ranunculoides, and the smallest for C. majalis. A. ranunculoides will gain the most, while M. bifolium will have the smallest potential range expansion. Studied species may respond differently to climate change despite similar current distributions and climatic variables affecting their potential distribution. Even slight differences in climatic niches could reduce the overlap of future ranges compared to present. We expect that due to high dependence on the warmest quarter precipitation, summer droughts in the future may be particularly severe for species that prefer moist soils. The lack of adaptation to long-distance migration and limited availability of appropriate soils may limit their migration and lead to a decline in biodiversity and changes in European forests.

• Klíčová slova
• Climate change, Forest understorey, Herbaceous plants, MaxEnt, Species distribution model,
• MeSH
• biodiverzita MeSH
• ekosystém MeSH
• klimatické změny * MeSH
• lesy * MeSH
• půda MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• Geografické názvy
• Evropa MeSH
• Názvy látek
• půda MeSH

The genera Brachystelma Sims and Ceropegia L. of the Ceropegieae (Apocynaceae-Asclepiadoideae) consist of ±320 species of geophytes and slender climbers with a tendency to stem-succulence in Ceropegia. They occur in and around the semi-arid, mainly tropical parts of the Old World. For 146 species (around half of the total) from most of the geographic range of the genera, we analysed data from two nuclear and five plastid regions. The evolution of Ceropegia is very complex, with at least 13 mostly well-supported lineages, one of which is sister to the ±350 species of stapeliads. Species of Brachystelma have evolved at least four times, with most of them nested within two separate major lineages. So, neither Brachystelma nor Ceropegia is monophyletic. We recover a broad trend, in two separate major lineages, from slender climbers to small, geophytic herbs. Several clades are recovered in which all species possess an underground tuber. Small, erect, non-climbing, geophytic species of Ceropegia with a tuber are nested among species of Brachystelma. Consequently, the distinctive tubular flowers used to define Ceropegia do not reflect relationships. This re-iterates the great floral plasticity in the Ceropegieae, already established for the stapeliads. Both major lineages exhibit a trend from tubular flowers with faint, often fruity odours, pollinated by very small Dipteran flies, to flatter flowers often with a bad odour, pollinated by larger flies. Most of the diversity in Brachystelma and Ceropegia is recent and arose within the last 3my against a background of increased aridification or extreme climatic variability during the Pliocene. In the ingroup, diversity is highest in Southern Africa, followed by Tropical East Africa and other arid parts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and India. Many disjunctions are revealed and these are best explained by recent, long distance dispersal. In Africa, the diversity arises from the presence of many different lineages over wide areas but there is also evidence of closely related species growing together with different pollinators.

• Klíčová slova
• Ceropegieae, DNA sequence-data, Geographical patterns, Molecular dating, Phylogeny, Stapeliads,
• MeSH
• Apocynaceae klasifikace   genetika   účinky záření   MeSH
• Bayesova věta MeSH
• biologická evoluce MeSH
• DNA rostlinná analýza   MeSH
• fylogeneze * MeSH
• klimatické změny * MeSH
• květy genetika   MeSH
• listy rostlin genetika   MeSH
• sekvenční analýza DNA MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Názvy látek
• DNA rostlinná MeSH

PREMISE: It is well-known that whole genome duplication (WGD) has played a significant role in the evolution of plants. The best-known phenotypic effect of WGD is the gigas effect, or the enlargement of polyploid plant traits. WGD is often linked with increased weediness, which could be a result of fitness advantages conferred by the gigas effect. As a result, the gigas effect could potentially explain polyploid persistence and abundance. We test whether a gigas effect is present in the polyploid-rich geophyte Oxalis, at both organ and cellular scales. METHODS: We measured traits in conspecific diploid and polyploid accessions of 24 species across the genus. In addition, we measured the same and additional traits in 20 populations of the weedy and highly ploidy-variable species Oxalis purpurea L., including measures of clonality and selfing as a proxy for weediness. Ploidy level was determined using flow cytometry. RESULTS: We found substantial variation and no consistent ploidy-related size difference, both between and within species, and across traits. Oxalis purpurea polyploids did, however, produce significantly more underground biomass and more bulbils than diploids, consistent with a potential role of WGD in the weediness of this species. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest a more nuanced role for the gigas effect, at least in Oxalis. It may be temporary, short-lived, and inconsistently expressed and retained on evolutionary time scales, but in the short term can contribute to lineage success via increased vegetative reproduction.

• Klíčová slova
• Oxalidaceae, Oxalis, bulbils, gigas effect, polyploidy, weediness,
• MeSH
• diploidie MeSH
• Oxalidaceae * MeSH
• ploidie MeSH
• polyploidie MeSH
• rozmnožování MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Genome duplication is widely acknowledged as a major force in the evolution of angiosperms, although the incidence of polyploidy in different floras may differ dramatically. The Greater Cape Floristic Region of southern Africa is one of the world's biodiversity hotspots and is considered depauperate in polyploids. To test this assumption, ploidy variation was assessed in a widespread member of the largest geophytic genus in the Cape flora: Oxalis obtusa. METHODS: DNA flow cytometry complemented by confirmatory chromosome counts was used to determine ploidy levels in 355 populations of O. obtusa (1014 individuals) across its entire distribution range. Ecological differentiation among cytotypes was tested by comparing sets of vegetation and climatic variables extracted for each locality. KEY RESULTS: Three majority (2x, 4x, 6x) and three minority (3x, 5x, 8x) cytotypes were detected in situ, in addition to a heptaploid individual originating from a botanical garden. While single-cytotype populations predominate, 12 mixed-ploidy populations were also found. The overall pattern of ploidy level distribution is quite complex, but some ecological segregation was observed. Hexaploids are the most common cytotype and prevail in the Fynbos biome. In contrast, tetraploids dominate in the Succulent Karoo biome. Precipitation parameters were identified as the most important climatic variables associated with cytotype distribution. CONCLUSIONS: Although it would be premature to make generalizations regarding the role of genome duplication in the genesis of hyperdiversity of the Cape flora, the substantial and unexpected ploidy diversity in Oxalis obtusa is unparalleled in comparison with any other cytologically known native Cape plant species. The results suggest that ploidy variation in the Greater Cape Floristic Region may be much greater than currently assumed, which, given the documented role of polyploidy in speciation, has direct implications for radiation hypotheses in this biodiversity hotspot.

• MeSH
• biodiverzita MeSH
• chromozomy rostlin MeSH
• genetická variace * MeSH
• Magnoliopsida cytologie   genetika   MeSH
• ploidie * MeSH
• populační genetika MeSH
• průtoková cytometrie metody   MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Geografické názvy
• jižní Afrika MeSH

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Despite extensive study of polyploidy, its origin, and ecogeographical differences between polyploids and their diploid progenitors, few studies have addressed ploidy-level structure and patterns of ecogeographical differentiation at various spatial scales using detailed sampling procedures. The pattern of coexistence of polyploids in the geophyte Allium oleraceum at the landscape and locality scale and their ecology were studied. METHODS: Flow cytometry and root-tip squashes were used to identify the ploidy level of 4347 plants from 325 populations sampled from the Czech Republic using a stratified random sampling procedure. Ecological differentiation among ploidy levels was tested by comparing sets of environmental variables recorded at each locality. KEY RESULTS: Across the entire sampling area, pentaploids (2n = 5x = 40) predominated, while hexaploids (2n = 6x = 48) and tetraploids (2n = 4x = 32) were less frequent. The distribution of tetra- and hexaploids was partially sympatric (in the eastern part) to parapatric (in the western part of the Czech Republic) whereas pentaploids were sympatric with other cytotypes. Plants of different ploidy levels were found to be ecologically differentiated and the ruderal character of cytotypes increased in the direction 4x --> 5x --> 6x with the largest realized niche differences between tetra- and hexaploids. Most populations contained only one ploidy level (77 %), 22 % had two (all possible combinations) and 1 % were composed of three ploidy levels. The majority of 4x + 5x and 5x + 6x mixed populations occurred in sympatry with uniform populations of the participating cytotypes in sites with ecologically heterogeneous or marginal environment, suggesting secondary contact between cytotypes. Some mixed 4x + 6x populations dominated by tetraploids being sympatric and intermixed with uniform 4x populations might represent primary zones of cytotype contact. Almost no mixed accessions were observed on the fine spatial scale in mixed populations. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide evidence for adaptive differences among ploidy levels, which may contribute to their complex distribution pattern. The prevalence of asexual reproduction, limited dispersal and equilibrium-disrupting processes may support local coexistence of cytotypes.

• MeSH
• Allium klasifikace   genetika   růst a vývoj   MeSH
• ekologie * MeSH
• ploidie * MeSH
• polyploidie MeSH
• Publikační typ
• časopisecké články MeSH
• práce podpořená grantem MeSH
• Geografické názvy
• Česká republika MeSH