Vertebrate vision is accomplished through light-sensitive photopigments consisting of an opsin protein bound to a chromophore. In dim light, vertebrates generally rely on a single rod opsin [rhodopsin 1 (RH1)] for obtaining visual information. By inspecting 101 fish genomes, we found that three deep-sea teleost lineages have independently expanded their RH1 gene repertoires. Among these, the silver spinyfin (Diretmus argenteus) stands out as having the highest number of visual opsins in vertebrates (two cone opsins and 38 rod opsins). Spinyfins express up to 14 RH1s (including the most blueshifted rod photopigments known), which cover the range of the residual daylight as well as the bioluminescence spectrum present in the deep sea. Our findings present molecular and functional evidence for the recurrent evolution of multiple rod opsin-based vision in vertebrates.

Center for Ecology Evolution and Biogeochemistry Department of Fish Ecology and Evolution Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology Kastanienbaum Switzerland

Center for Modeling Complex Interactions University of Idaho Moscow ID USA

Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis Department of Biosciences University of Oslo Oslo Norway

Department of Biological Sciences University of Idaho Moscow ID USA

Department of Biology University of Maryland College Park MD USA

Department of Palaeontology and Museum University of Zurich Zurich Switzerland

Department of Zoology Faculty of Science Charles University Prague Czech Republic

Lions Eye Institute The University of Western Australia Perth WA Australia

Oceans Graduate School The University of Western Australia Perth WA Australia

Queensland Brain Institute The University of Queensland Brisbane QLD Australia

Red Sea Research Center Thuwal Saudi Arabia

School of Biological Sciences The University of Western Australia Perth WA Australia

Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology Bremerhaven Germany

UWA Oceans Institute The University of Western Australia Perth WA Australia

Zoological Institute Department of Environmental Sciences University of Basel Basel Switzerland

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