Digital data are accumulating at unprecedented rates. These contain a lot of information about the natural world, some of which can be used to answer key ecological questions. Here, we introduce iEcology (i.e., internet ecology), an emerging research approach that uses diverse online data sources and methods to generate insights about species distribution over space and time, interactions and dynamics of organisms and their environment, and anthropogenic impacts. We review iEcology data sources and methods, and provide examples of potential research applications. We also outline approaches to reduce potential biases and improve reliability and applicability. As technologies and expertise improve, and costs diminish, iEcology will become an increasingly important means to gain novel insights into the natural world.

Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences Institute of Hydrobiology České Budějovice Czech Republic

Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences Institute of Hydrobiology České Budějovice Czech Republic; University of South Bohemia Faculty of Science Department of Ecosystem Biology České Budějovice Czech Republic

Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos Laboratório Associado Universidade do Porto Vairão Portugal; Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos Laboratório Associado Instituto Superior de Agronomia Universidade de Lisboa Lisbon Portugal

Edward Grey Institute Department of Zoology University of Oxford Oxford UK; Merton College University of Oxford Oxford UK

Environment and Sustainability Institute University of Exeter Penryn Cornwall UK

Helsinki Laboratory of Interdisciplinary Conservation Science Department of Geosciences and Geography University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland; Helsinki Institute of Sustainability Science University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland; Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies University of Aveiro Aveiro Portugal; Institute of Biological and Health Sciences Federal University of Alagoas Av Lourival Melo Mota Maceió AL Brazil

Helsinki Laboratory of Interdisciplinary Conservation Science Department of Geosciences and Geography University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland; Helsinki Institute of Sustainability Science University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland; School of Life Sciences University of KwaZulu Natal Durban South Africa

Institute of Biological and Health Sciences Federal University of Alagoas Av Lourival Melo Mota Maceió AL Brazil

Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries Berlin Germany

Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research Ben Gurion University of the Negev Midreshet Ben Gurion Israel

School of Geography and the Environment University of Oxford Oxford UK

School of Natural Sciences University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia

Université Paris Saclay CNRS AgroParisTech Ecologie Systématique Evolution 91405 Orsay France

References provided by Crossref.org

Leveraging social media and other online data to study animal behavior

Harnessing online digital data in biodiversity monitoring

Global responses to the COVID-19 pandemic by recreational anglers: considerations for developing more resilient and sustainable fisheries

Expanding conservation culturomics and iEcology from terrestrial to aquatic realms